NYPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES
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PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE;
CONTAINING
THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE,
AND
AN ADDITIONAL COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE,
WITH ALL THEIR
ELEMENTS AND DETAILS EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED,
FOR THE USE OF
CARPENTERS AND PRACTICAL MEN.
mati} siptfi mattn.
SECOND EDITION.
By ASHER benjamin, Architect,
Author of " The American BuiUler's Companion," " The Rudiments of Architecture," and
" The Practical House Carpenter."
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR ; AND BY CARTER, HENDEE & CO.
NEW YORK— COLLINS & CO. AND BLISS & WADSWORTH.
1835.
rs'
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833,
by AsHER Benjamin,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
1> 43^
D. CLAPP, JR. PRIiNTER,
Corner of Washington and Fraofelin Streets Boston.
PREFACE
I HAVE endeavored, in this Treatise, to avoid a defect which is very
generally complained of in books of this kind ; that is, a want of parti-
cularity in the details, and of a clear, simple explanation of them. In
cities, where Architects are always at hand, this deficiency is not so much
felt ; since the Carpenters there stand in need of no further knowledge
upon the subject, than such as may enable them to put into practice the
drawings furnished by the Architect. But in villages, the case is difierent.
Those Carpenters in country villages who aspire to eminence in their busi-
ness, having no Architect to consult, are under the necessity of studying
the science thoroughly and without a master. To them, therefore, is this
book peculiarly adapted ; for it contains the principles of many expensive
folios, condensed into a narrow space and a])plied to modern practice.
The time has been, within my own recollection, when New England
did not contain a single professed Architect. The first individual who laid
claim to that character, was Charles Bulfinch, Esq. of this city ; to whose
classical taste we are indebted for many fine buildings. The construction
of the Franklin Street houses, of Avhich that gentleman was the Architect,
gave the first impulse to good taste ; and Architecture, in this part of the
country, has advanced with an accelerated progress ever since. But though
Architecture has certainly improved, and rapidly, too, within late years, a
large proportion of the vast number of buildings which meet the eye, of
iv PREFACE.
all classes and sizes, and constructed for all purposes, are totally destitute
of architectural taste. This defect does not arise from parsimony ; for it
is not uncommon to see buildings of large dimensions burdened with a pro-
fusion of expensive and misplaced finery, which forms anything but ornament.
Buildings of this class, which under skilful hands might have become proud
monuments of public taste, are mortifying and repulsive objects to those
who take an interest in the science of Architecture.
It has been too jjrevalent a habit, among those who vvould not think
themselves capable of instructing a Carpenter in the art of planing or sawing
boards, or a bricklayer in laying bricks, to undertake the much more difficult
task of becoming their own Architects. The consequence is, that such
persons proceed to build without any fixed system ; unlooked for difficulties
are soon encountered, which lead to expensive alterations, and the harmony
of the building is destroyed. Nor is this evil confined to private buildings.
The committees selected to superintend our public edifices are apt to cramp
the invention of the Architect by their economy, or pervert it by their
fancies ; so that specimens of the taste of some member of the committee
can usually be discerned by a skilful eye, among our most scientific compo-
sitions. But the evil is certainly decreasing. Knowledge of the science is
rapidly gaining ground, and the increased attention attracted towards the
subject disposes those who have not the necessary information to confide in
those who have.
The principles and practice of the science are developed, in the follow-
ing pages, in a detailed and systematic manner. The text is taken from the
Grecian system, which is now universally adopted by the first professors of
the art, both in Europe and America ; and whose economical plan, and plain
massive features, are peculiarly adapted to the republican habits of this country.
PREFACE. V
I have given examples of each of the five orders of Architecture ; first
in the usual way, then repeating their details upon a large scale. There
are likewise added a Column and Entablature, selected from the Grecian
antiquities, and standing, with regard to expense, between the Tuscan and
Doric orders.
I have also given six examples of Frontispieces and Porticoes, with
their details drawn on a large scale. To these are subjoined explanations
and practical observations on their proportions and adaptation to the build-
ings in which they are to be used : also, a variety of examples of Cornices,
for both external and internal finishings, and of Architraves and Base Mould-
ings, accurately drawn one half of the full size for practice, and accompanied
with practical observations on their size and fitness ; examples of Doors,
Windows, and their decorations ; Ornamental Mouldings, Stairs, and Car-
pentry ; together with all the elements of Architecture which are necessary
to supply the wants of the practical builder. To these are added a complete
drawing of a Church, with all its details laid down in imitation of working
drawings, with suitable explanations.
ASHER BENJAMIN.
Boston, March 19, 1833.
2
CONTENTS OF PLATES
Practical Geometry Plate 1.
Application of the Conic Sections to Grecian Mouldings II-
Examples, showing how to draw Grecian Moiddings HI-
Examples, showing how to draw Roman Mouldings IV.
Example of the Tuscan order ' •
Details of the Tuscan order * !•
Example of a Column and Entablature V II.
Details of the Column and Entablature VIII.
Example of the Doric order I^-
Details of the Doric order X. and XI.
Example of the Ionic order XJi.
Details of the Ionic order Xlll.
Second example of the Ionic order XI V .
Details of the second example of the Ionic order XV.
Ionic Volute, figured for practice . . . . ; X^^.
Example of the Ionic Capital, figured for practice XVII.
Example of the Corinthian order XVIII.
Example of the Corinthian Capital, figured for practice XIX.
Details of the Corinthian order XX.
Example of the Composite order XXI.
Details of the Composite order XXII.
Example of the Composite Capital, figured for practice XXIII.
Examples of Pedestals for four of the orders XXIV.
Example of a Frontispiece XXV.
Example of a Frontispiece, with side lights XXVI.
Details of do XXVII.
Example of a Frontispiece, with circular head XXVIII,
CONTENTS. vii
Example of a Frontispiece, with pilasters Plate XXIX.
Example of an Ionic Portico XXX.
Details of the Ionic Portico XXXI.
Example of a Composite Portico XXXII.
Examples of Cornices for external finishing XXXIII. and XXXIV.
Examples of Cornices for internal finishing XXXV. and XXXVI.
Example of Centre pieces XXXVII.
Example of Architraves XXX VIII.
Example of Common and Shding Doors XXXIX. and XL.
Details of Sliding Doors XLI.
Examples of Sash Frames, Shutters, &c XLII. and XLIII.
Examples of Base Mouldings XLIV.
Examples of Vases, Sur-hase Mouldings, &;c XLV.
Examples of Ornamental Mouldings XL VI.
Examples of Chimney pieces XL VII. and XL VIII.
Examples of Scrolls, Curtail Step, and Handraihng XLIX. and L.
Ground Plan of a Church, with some details LI.
Gallery Plan of the same Church, with details LII.
Front and Side Elevation of the same Church LIII. and LIV.
Plan of the Ceiling, inverted, with details LV.
Plan and Elevation of a Pulpit, with details LVI.
Examples of Carpentry LVII. and LVIII.
Example of the Corinthian order, from the Monument of Lysicrates .... LIX.
Examples for Fences, Window Guards, and Frets LX.
I TRUST the following Tables will be found useful to those who are in the habit of making
estimates on Iron Work. In my own practice, I have often felt the want of something of the
kind. The fractions of an ounce I have given no further than the first decimal figure, supposing
that would be accurate enough for our purpose.
A Table showing the Weight of a square foot of Cast and Malleable Iron, Copper, and Lead,
from one sixteenth to one fourth of an inch thiols.
CAST IRON.
MALL. IKOH.
COPPER.
LEAD.
lbs. 02.
lbs. 02.
lbs. OZ.
lbs. OZ.
One sixteenth of an inch thick
2 6^
2 7J^
2 15
3 11
One eighth "
4 ISJ^r
4 15^%
5 14
7 6
Three sixteenths "
.7 4
7 7tV
3 13
11 1
One fourth "
9 lOfj
9 ISfTj
11 12
14 12
A Table showing the Weight of one foot in length of Cast and Malleable Iron, from one half
to one and one half inch, square ; also of round Rods, from one half to one and a half
inch in diameter.
One half of an inch
Five eighths .....
Three fourths ....
Seven eighths ....
One inch .....
One and one eighth of an inch
One and one quarter "
One and one half "
A Table showing the Weight of a cubic foot of several kinds of Timber, and other Materials.
CAST IROIT.
MALL. IRON.
ROUND RODS.
OZ.
OZ.
OZ.
12t%
13t\
IOtV
a
20tV
161^,
29
29^
23tV
40f^
31A
51^
53h
41*
,
67f^
52tV
80^
83
64t*o
116
119^
93ftr
J. iiuio aiiuw
cnii tii^
lbs.
Ash
'i1l%
Beech
43f^
Brass
623
Brick
115
Brickwork
117
Cast Iron
450
Clay
125
lb3.
lbs.
Coal, Newcastle
79^
'l?IT
Mahogany
35
Earth
95 to 125
Marble
169
Elm
34
Oak
52
Granite
164
Pine, yellow
263
Gravel
120
«
Sea Water
621
Iron, malleable
475
Water
62
Lead
709
Zinc
439^
PILATE I.
Fin. 2.
Fm. 3.
>/— P
Fu). li.
Fij). 5.
Fi„. I.
Fin. 6.
F>,i
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■S-_ \
A^
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
PLATE I.
Fig. 1 shows a method of drawing an oval to any given length
and breadth. Let A C be the larger, D B the smaller diameter,
and g' the centre of the oval. Deduct one half of the difference
between A g and D ^ from D g', and with the remaining part of
D g' and from A and C mark the centres f and e. On f describe
the arc n A o ; and on e, the arc I C m. Make B h equal to A for
e C ; join f h, and bisect f h at i ; draw i k perpendicular to fh,
intersecting B D at A; ; from k draw ko, cutting A C at/, and ^m,
cutting A C at e ; make g' j equal to g k ; and from j draw j fn and
j e I. Then on k and j as centres, with either of the distances k o,
k m, j I or j n, as a radius, describe the arcs o B m and nD I ; and
the oval is completed.
Fig. 2 shows a method of making a right angle with a ten foot
rod. Suppose A B and B C to be two sills to a building, and B one
of its angles. Suppose it required to place them at right angles
with each other. Measure off upon A B eight feet to a, and on
B C six feet to b ; then make the diagonal line a b exactly ten feet,
and B A and B C will be at right angles with each other.
3
10 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Fig. 3 shows a method of describing an ellipsis with a cord. Let
A B be the transverse, and C D the conjugate diameter. With
one half of the transverse diameter as a radius, and on C, describe
an arc cutting A B at e and f. At these points fix in pins, a cord
being placed around the pins and brought together at C ; then move
the cord round from C, towards g, and it will describe an ellipsis.
This method of describing an ellipsis is exceedingly useful in laying
out ground, where great accuracy is not required, and where large
ellipses are to be described.
Figs. 4, 5 and 6 show a simple method of describing a polygon
of any number of sides, one- side being given. On the extreme of
the given side, and with a distance equal to that side or to any other
distance as a radius, describe a semicircle, and divide it into as many
parts as you intend to have sides to your polygon. Then draw lines
from the centre through these divisions, always omitting the two
last, and with the distance of the given side run the sides round as
in fig. 4. For example, e d being the given side, with that distance
in your compasses, having one foot in c, let the other fall on a ;
then with one foot in a, let the other fall on h : and with one in b,
let the other fall on c, and the same with c to d, and the sides are
completed.
Fig. 7 shows the method of finding a straight line nearly equal
to the circumference of a given circle. Let F D H E be the given
circle. Draw D E, cutting the centre at G ; and from G, perpen-
dicular to D E, draw G F C. Divide G F into four equal parts,
three of which parts set up from F to C ; from C, draw C B, cut-
ting the circle at D ; and from C draw C A, cutting the circle at E.
Draw B A parallel to D E, making a tangent with the lower extre-
mity of the circle at H, and B A will be equal to one half of the
circumference of the circle.
S E r T 1 O W S OF S O 1.1 JIS s ,
T-ILATE n.
433llijz34 43 22D2 234
CONIC SECTIONS. H
Fig. 8 shows the method of describing a segment of a circle to
any given length and height. A B being the length, and E D the
height, join respectively the points A B, AD, and A C, and draw
D C parallel to A B, and equal to A D. Put in pins at A and D ;
and, with a point at the angle D, move the triangle ADC around,
until the angle D arrives at A, and it will describe the segment A D.
The other side of the segment may be drawn in a similar manner.
Fig. 9 shows another method of drawing a circle nearly accurate,
by ordinates. Let A B be the length, and D C the perpendicular
height. Make B b and A a each equal and parallel to D C. Di-
vide D A, D B, B 6 and A a, each into a like number of equal parts,
as here into four, and draw lines from the points 1, 2, 3 in D B
and in D A parallel to D C, From C draw lines to the points 1,
2, 3 in both B b and A a ; and through the points where those lines
intersect the lines drawn from 1, 2, 3 in D B and D A, trace the
curve, which will be the segment required.
CONIC SECTIONS
PLATE II.
It is well known to those, who have a knowledge of Grecian
architecture, that every Grecian moulding is indebted to some one
of the conic sections for its beautiful variety of outline ; and that
that outline is regulated by the particular section made, whether it
be perpendicular to the base, or more or less inclined to it, or parallel
to the sides, or whether the sides of the cone be longer or shorter
than the diameter of the base. It is therefore evident that an end-
less number of different outlines can be obtained from the conic
13 CONIC SECTIONS.
sections ; which makes it expedient to lay down the cone with seve-
ral of its sections, and to show the method of applying them to the
Grecian moulding.
If a cone be cut by a line parallel to its base, such a section will
be a circle.
If a line passes through the cone, intersecting both of its sides
and inclining more or less to the base, as a b, a section thus made
will form an ellipsis or oval.
If a section be made by a line perpendicular to the base, as c i,
that section will be an hyperbola, as h g i.
If a section be made by a line passing parallel to one of its sides,
as d k, the figure of the section thus made will be a parabola.
Fig. 1. On c? as a centre, describe the half circle A m / B, which
will be the semi-diameter of the cone's base. With a view to illus-
trate the subject, the lower extremity of the cone is thrown into per-
spective. Draw d I, perpendicular to A B. On fig. 2, make D A
and D B each equal to D / fig. 1, and make D C equal to d k in
fig. 1, and perpendicular to A B in fig. 2 ; draw A E and B F, each
equal and parallel to D C ; divide D A, D B, A E and B F, each
into a like number of equal parts ; into four, for instance, as here.
Through the points 1, 2, 3, in both A E and B F, draw lines to the
point C ; also, through the points 1, 2, 3, in D A and D B, draw
lines parallel to D C, cutting the former ones at a, b, c, d, e and y.
Then through those points, and the points A C and B, trace a curved
line, which completes the section of the parabola.
Fig. 3 exhibits the method of drawing the hyperbola. Make
D a equal to d C, the height of the cone fig. 1. Make D A and
D B each equal to c 771 fig. 1, and perpendicular to D a fig. 2 ;
make D C equal to c i fig. 1 ; make A F and B F each equal and
parallel to D C ; join respectively the points E F, A a and B a.
CONIC SECTIONS. 13
Divide D A, D B, A E and B F, each into a like number of equal
parts ; as here, into four. Through the points 1, 2, 3, in both A E
and B E, draw lines to the point C ; also through the points 1, 2, 3,
in D A and D B, draw lines cutting the former ones, and which
would, if produced, meet in a point at a. Then, through A, C, B,
and the points of intersection, trace a curve line, which will be the
hyperbola required.
Fig. 6 exhibits the method of drawing the section a b. On fig. 1,
which is taken lower down the cone with a view of representing the
lines more clearly, let A B C be the outline, and B r/ C the semi-
diameter of the cone. Produce F G to E, there cutting A E, which
is parallel to B C ; also produce G F to D, cutting the base line at
D. Divide the semi-diameter of the cone into eight parts, and
through these divisions draw lines perpendicular to B C, and cutting
B C at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 ; througli these points draw lines meeting
in a point at A. Draw d D perpendicular to D E, and equal to B 4 ;
from a, b, c and d, draw lines parallel to D C, cutting D d at e,f, g
and d ; draw D d No. 2 perpendicular to G D, and equal to D </ No.
1. Make D e, e f, f g and g d, in No. 2, each equal to the corres-
ponding letters in No. 1 ; then draw lines from the point E, cutting
D d No. 2 at c, f, g and d. From the points h, i, k, p, v, u and y,
perpendicular to D E, draw lines cutting e E at b t, J'E at m c, g
K at n r, and d E at o. Through these points, and through F and
G, trace the curve line YbninorctG, which is one half of the
section required.
As three different sections of the cone have now been described,
and as the principal object of their description was to show their
application to the Grecian mouldings, I now proceed to apply them
to that object. The lines within A D B and E C F, in fig. 4, are
in all respects similar, and like those within the corresponding
letters fig. 2. 4
o
14 GRECIAN MOULDINGS.
It will be seen, by inspection of fig. 4, that the outline of the
echinus there described from A to C is exactly that of a parabola ;
and that from C to b, where the quirk joins the fillet, is another and
shorter curve. In determining the size and outline of the quirk,
and also the projection of the fillet beyond that of the extreme part
of the moulding, judgment is to be exercised. If the quirk is very
small, it does not mark the line of separation between the echinus
and fillet sufliciently strong ; and on the contrary, if it be too large,
it then assumes too much the appearance of principal, when it ought
to be subordinate.
As the hyperbola fig. 3 is transferred to fig. 5, it is evident that
the outline of the moulding therein exhibited is that of the hyperbola,
with the exception of the quirk, which is, as in fig. 4, of another and
a shorter curve.
GRECIAN MOULDINGS
PLATE HI.
A and B are two mouldings diflering in their projection only. It
will be seen that the principle upon which they are drawn is that of
the parabola, as exhibited in Plate 2, fig. 4. Let it be remembered
that the projection of the moulding must be divided into the same
number of equal parts as the height, be the diflierence in height and
projection ever so great.
The principle of the two mouldings C and D is that of the hyper-
bola, as exhibited in fig. 3, Plate 2. The lines drawn from the divi-
sions on the line of height would, if produced, meet in a point. In
order to determine at what distance this point shall be from the
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GRECIAN MOULDINGS. 15
extreme projection of the moulding, we must consider what shape
the outhne of the moulding is to assume. If it is to approach very
nearly to a straight line, then the centre must not be very distant
from the moulding; but should it be desired to have the outline of a
shorter curve than C or D, then the centre must be further removed
from the extreme projection of the moulding.
The only difference between the drawing of the mouldings E and
F, and that of the mouldings C and D, is that the line a 4 would, if
produced, meet in the same point with those cutting a F at 1, 2, 3
and 4 ; whereas the lines « 4 in C and D are both parallel with the
moulding. It is therefore apparent, that by this deviation the outline
approaches somewhat nearer to a straight line, and that the upper
extremity of the moulding is considerably reduced in height.
G exhibits a method of describing the cymatium on the principle
of the parabola. It will be understood by examining the Plate,
without further explanation. The turning in of the upper, and out
of the lower edge, is left to the judgment of the student.
To draw the cyma recta II. Its projection a d, and its height d c,
being given, bisect a d at g, and draw g h parallel to a b ; bisect
ah Vii e, and draw e f, cutting g h at i. Divide i g, i h, ij" and i e,
each into a like number of equal parts, and from b draw lines cut-
ting i e at 1, 2 and 3. From a draw lines passing through those
last drawn, and cutting i ^ at 1, 2 and 3. Then trace the curve
through the points of intersection of those lines, and it will finish the
lower half of the moulding. The upper half, being drawn in the
same way, will not require further explanation. By this method,
the outline of the cyma recta may be correctly drawn, in imitation
of the Grecian practice, to any height and projection. It is however
to be remembered, that the projection should not in any case exceed
the height.
16 ROMAN MOULDINGS.
The several different sections of the cone, with their application
to the outline of the Grecian mouldings, have, I trust, been so fully
explained, as to enable the student to comprehend how great a
variety of outline may be obtained from them. When the principles,
on which they are drawn, are fully understood, and the student has
accustomed his eye to distinguish the peculiar outline of each differ-
ent section, he may in practice, when the size and contour of a
moulding is determined, cut a thin piece of wood by that same eye
to the exact shape wanted, and by this mark the outline.
ROMAN MOULDINGS
PLATE IV.
Of these mouldings but little need be said in relation to the prin-
ciples on which they arc drawn, the outline of each being some part
of a circle.
The astragal, or bead, is one half of a circle.
The ovolo and cavetto are each one quarter of a circle. Their
projection and height are equal.
To draw the cyma recta, divide the line a h into eight equal parts.
With three of these parts as a radius, and on a and 4, make the
intersection c ; on c, describe a 4 ; on 4 and b, make the intersec-
tion d ; on d, draw 4 6; which completes the outline of the cyma
recta.
To draw the cyma reversa, divide a b into ten equal parts. With
four of these as a radius, and on a and e, make the intersection ;
on c draw a e, on e and b make the intersection d, and on d draw
e b.
R (D M A J^ MO I'^ ]L. ]D 1 K G S
IPliATJE lY.
Astn'oal
Ovolo
Torus
lavrlto
A
Scotia
Cyintt Reversfi
MOULDINGS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 17
The torus is, like the bead, a half circle, which finishes with a
fillet above and a plinth below.
To draw the scotia A, divide its height into seven equal parts, and
make a o equal to three of them and perpendicular to the fillet.
Make the fillet d project three parts beyond the fillet a ; make d b
parallel to a o, and equal to the height of the scotia. From b, cut-
ting a o at o, draw b c ; on o, with the distance o a, describe the
curve a c ; and on b, with the distance b c, or b d, describe c d.
To draw tfie scotia B, divide its height into three equal parts.
Project the fillet c one part more than the fillet 3. On 2, with the
distance 2 3, describe the quadrant 3 a ; with b c or b a, and on b,
describe the quadrant a c.
To draw the scape of a column, divide its projection into five
parts. With these five parts, and one more as a radius, from a and
b make the intersection c, and on c describe the scape a b.
MOULDINGS AND THEIR APPENDAGES
Mouldings, judiciously intermixed with plain surfaces, such as
fillets, facies, coronas, &.c., are the elements to which architecture
is indebted for its most splendid productions. It is on the size,
shape and fitness of these details, together with that of the plain
surfaces which serve to divide and enrich them, that the beauty or
deformity of every production, composed of these elements, depends.
Any one, who is desirous of making himself a judge of these
details, must study the outline separately and critically, when afl^ected
by shadow, and when by reflecting light. After he has accustomed
his eye to discern and retain the beauties and fitness of each for
5
18 REMARKS ON MOULDINGS.
all the different situations in which he may wish to employ them,
he will then as faithfully study the size, shape and fitness of all
plain surfaces by which the mouldings may be separated and adorn-
ed. After this, he must study them collectively, by frequently draw-
ing and intermixing their details ; and he will thus be able to discern
the good and bad effects of his composition, and improve his taste.
Every composition is not only dependent upon the outline of its
details ; but upon the proportion which the size of one bears to that
of another and to the whole, and upon its adaptation to its intended
place.
REMARKS ON MOULDINGS
The ovolo, when used as a crown moulding, was generally made
by the Greeks to project about three-fourths of its height, and to
project to a distance about equal to its height, when used in the
capital of the Doric column. The great vaiiety of outline, and the
strong shadow produced by the quirk of its upper edge, render this
moulding, when possessing the Grecian form, equally applicable to
a large or small projection ; so that it can be used in a great variety
of situations, with nearly equal success. It is peculiarly adapted to
flat surfaces ; such as architraves, doors, panels, &c. It is different,
however, with the Roman ovolo, whose projection cannot with
propriety be made much greater or less than its height ; for should
it project much more, or much less, the outline would then become
less than a quarter of a circle, which defect limits the application
of this moulding, compared with that of the Grecian, to a very few
situations.
REMARKS ON MOULDINGS. 19
The cavetto, in its outline, did not differ very essentially in the
Greek and Roman practice. It was employed often, by the Ro-
mans, as a crowning moulding in their cornices, but never by the
Greeks. Its outline may often be improved by adopting some part
of the ellipsis for its curve.
The cymatium, as practised by the Greeks, was generally less in
projection than in height. Its outline was always some part of a
conic section ; so that it appeared equally beautiful, whether the
projection was great or small. When the moulding is very flat, it
is well to cause the lower edge to project forwards and the upper
edge to recede. The light and shadow are thus so distributed over
the surface of the moulding, as to cause a marked line of separation
from the adjoining flat surfaces.
The cymatium, as practised by the Romans, was generally com-
posed of parts of a circle, the outline of which at the two extremi-
ties of the moulding ended perpendicularly to the horizon. The
light and shadow were therefore very faint at the edges, and its
variation from a flat surface hardly distinguishable. The cymatium
was generally employed by the Romans to separate the crown
moulding from the corona, in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite
orders, but seldom or never used for that purpose by the Greeks.
The cyma recta was always the finishing, or crown moulding of
the Ionic and Corinthian orders, as practised by the Grecians. It
had a great height and small projection in the best examples. Its
outline was made to imitate some one of the conic sections, and
produced a shadow less abrupt and hard than the Roman, which
was always composed of parts of a circle.
20
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE
Each of these orders presents a distinct style or mode of buildino-,
having a character peculiar to itself The orders are the alphabet
of the art ; and to them and their elements, altered, varied and ar-
ranged in a thousand different ways, we are to look for the most
splendid productions of architecture. A thorough knowledge of
these orders, and of all their constituent parts, is therefore net;essary
for the composition of any architectural subject.
Of these orders, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, are of Grecian
origin. They exhibit three distinct and essential qualities in archi-
tecture ; strength, grace, and richness.
The Tuscan and Composite orders are of Roman origin. The
former appears to have been invented for the purpose of exhibiting
strength and rustic simplicity, while elegance and profusion appear
to have been the object of the latter.
By whom these orders were first invented, or at what time their
improvement was advanced to the state in which they are to be
found in the structures and fragments of antiquity, cannot now be
ascertained. We know nothing of their origin except what is
related to us by Vitruvius, a writer whose correctness in many
parts is much questioned. He is the only author upon Architecture
of the Augustan age, or for many ages afterward, whose works
have come down to us. His writings are justly held in great esti-
mation. It must be confessed, however, that his account of the
origin of the orders has more the air of a fable than of ai> historical
fact. Vitruvius informs us that " Dorus, (lie son of Helen, and the
nymph Opticus, who governed Achaia and the whole of the Pelo-
ponnesus, in some period of his reign, dedicated a temple to Juno
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 21
in the ancient city of Argos. The order of architecture employed
in this sacred edifice, which from its founder was termed Doric, was
afterward adopted by the cities of Achaia ; although no certain
principles had yet been established by which its proportions might
be regulated. In a subsequent era, the Athenians, in conformity
with the response of the Delphic oracle, by the general consent of
the States of Greece, sent thirteen colonies into Asia, each con-
ducted by an experienced leader, and invested Ion, son of Xuthus
and Creusa, whom Apollo by his priestess acknowledged as his
offspring, with the supreme command. He led them into Asia, and
possessed himself of the territories of the Carians, in which he
founded the cities of Ephesus, Miletus and Myus ; the latter of
which being destroyed by an inundation, hs rights and privileges
were transferred by the lonians to the Milesians, likewise Priene,
Samos, Yeos, Colaphon, Chios, Erythrse, Phocsea, Clazomena;,
Lebedus and Melite. The last was destroyed in the war, which
was undertaken by the general concurrence of the other cities to
punish the arrogance of its inhabitants ; and in its place Smyrna
was afterward admitted among the confederated States, through the
mediation of Attalus and Arsinoe.
" After the expulsion of the Carians and the Leleges, the new
acquisition was called Ionia, from the name of the chief of the
colonists ; and temples were erected to the deities of the Grecian
mythology, the order of architecture of which was similar to that
observed in the sacred buildings of Achaia, and called the Doric,
from having originated in the Dorian cities. The Temple of Apollo
Panionius was the first they constructed in this manner. Desirous
of adorning this temple with columns, but unpracticed in the rules
of proportion, they were led to consider the proportions of the human
frame ; expecting principles to result from them, by the adoption of
6
22 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
which the great objects of strength and beauty would be obtained.
Finding that the foot was a sixth part of the height of the whole
stature, they instituted the same proportions in their columns,
whose height, including the capital, they made equal to six times
the diameter of the shaft at the base. Thus the Doric column,
formed according to the proportions of the human figure, and
emblematical of manly strength and beauty, was first introduced
in the temples of Ionia. In later times, however, when it was in
contemplation to consecrate a temple to Diana, they sought to
introduce a new order of columns by giving to them the proportions
of the female form ; and that they might be emblematical of femi-
nine delicacy, the height of the columns was made eight times the
lower diameter. Bases were also given to them in imitation of
sandals, and volutes were sculptured in allusion to the ringlets
which fell down on either side of the face. The cymatia and
encarpi in front were intended to resemble the hair as it was then
worn, and the shaft was channelled in such a manner as to bear
some resemblance to the folds of the matronly garment.
" Thus the invention of two difl^erent orders arose; one exhibiting
the boldness and simplicity of the masculine figure, and the other
the more finished form of a woman, attired and richly decorated.
Later ages, however, advancing in refinement and judgment, sought
to give greater beauties to both by making the Doric column seven
times its diameter at the base of the shaft, and the Ionic nine times
its lower diameter. The order, whose use was adopted first by the
Ionian colonies, was called the Ionic.
" The third order, which is named Corinthian, derives its sym-
metry from an intention to make the form of the column accord
with the more delicate proportions of the maiden figure ; for at that
early period of fife, the limbs are less robust, and the figure admits
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 23
of a greater display of ornament. The invention bf the capital is
said to owe its origin to the following circumstance. A virgin of
Corinth, just as she had attained to a marriageable age, was attack-
ed by a disorder whose effects proved fatal. After her interment,
the vases, the objects of her admiration when ahve, were collected
by her nurse and deposited in a basket, which she placed upon her
grave, after covering it with a tile to protect it from the weather.
The basket was accidentally placed over the roots of an acanthus.
The natural growth of the plant being impeded by the pressure upon
it, the middle leaf and the cauliculi appeJired in the spring around
the bottom of the basket. The cauliculi, attaching themselves to
the external surface, grew upwards, until their progress was arrest-
ed by the angles of the tile projecting over the basket, which caused
them to incline forward and assume a spiral form. At this stage of
its growth, Callimachus, who, from his great genius and talent for
sculpture, was called Catatechnos by the Athenians, chancing to
pass by the spot observed the basket and the beauty of the young
foliage around it. Pleased with its novel and fanciful appearance,
he adopted it in the columns which he afterwards employed in the
edifices of Corinth ; having first instituted laws for the proportions
of the order, which was thence termed Corinthian.
An order of architecture consists of one or more columns, stand-
ing perpendicularly to the horizon, and supporting an entablature,
which extends from column to column.
Each order is composed of two principal divisions, the column
and the entablature ; which are respectively subdivided into three
parts : the column, into the base, the capital and the shaft ; and the
entablature, into the architrave, the frieze and the cornice.
The base is the lowest extremity of the column. It is generally
24 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
thirty minutes in height, and consists of a plinth, whose base line
forms a square of four equal sides, projecting on each side of the
column about ten minutes, above which is a series of mouldings, pro-
jecting equally all around, and encircling the shaft of the column.
The shaft of a column is in shape a frustum of a cone. It is that
plain or fluted part, which is situated between the base and the
capital. In some examples it is plain, in others fluted ; and is
differently formed and variously divided in the different orders.
The diameter of the lower surface of the shaft is taken as the unit
of measure. It is divided into sixty equal parts, each part being
one minute. This scale of diameter and minutes is used by archi-
tects as an universal standard for all the measures that regulate
and determine the heights and projections. Unlike the measure of
feet and inches, it is as various as the diameter of columns.
The capital is the member which crowns and adorns the upper
extremity of the column, and is usually made the characteristic of
the order. It is both ornamental and useful ; for, while it decorates
the upper end of the column, it serves to prevent the angle from
fracture and the rain from penetrating the shaft. Capitals are clas-
sified according to the order they serve to adorn. The Tuscan
capital is distinguished by rustic plainness ; the Doric, by grave
simplicity ; the Ionic, by graceful elegance ; and the Corinthian and
Composite, by gorgeous richness.
The architrave is the lowest division of the entablature. It is
divided into one or more fascia, according to the character of the
order to which it belongs, and crowned with a single or compound
moulding. The Doric architrave differs from all the others, having
only one fascia, which is capped with a band of rectangular form,
and ornamented with six conical drops hanging from the lower
extremity of each triglyph.
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 25
The frieze is that part of the entablature which divides the archi-
trave from the cornice. In the Tuscan order it is always left plain,
the frieze of that order not admitting of any ornament whatever.
The Doric frieze is peculiar. It is ornamented with triglyphs, and
the metopes are sometimes embellished with ox skulls or historical
representations. The Doric frieze is also, to common observers,
the distinguishing part of the order. In other orders the frieze is
sometimes ornamented, but oftener plain.
The cornice is an assemblage of mouldings, crowning and finish-
ing the entablature. Each order has a peculiar cornice. Every
cornice is composed of three parts ; the bed mould, the corona, and
the crowning moulding. The details of the Tuscan cornic;e are
few, bold and strongly marked ; of the Doric, massive and simple,
the mutule being a distinguished feature in that order. The ele-
ments of th€ Ionic cornice are more numerous than those of the
Tuscan or Doric. The dentil, which properly belongs to it, is
sometimes omitted for the modillion. At other times, the dentil
and modillion are both left out, and a plain bed mould used in their
stead.
The Corinthian and Composite cornices are embellished with
both dentils and modillions, and are often otherwise decorated with
a profusion of elegant ornaments.
The Tuscan order consists of a few prominent parts. Its char-
acter is simple grandeur, impressing the beholder at first sight with
the conviction that its strength is adequate to the support of any
weight it may be employed to sustain. It may be used in all situa-
tions where strength and simplicity are desired, or expense is to be
avoided.
Of the Doric order we have numerous ancient examples now in
existence, many of which have been accurately measured. It is
7
26 THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
fortunate for us that we are not under the necessity of depending
wholly upon the account of Vitruvius for the proportions of this
order, as in the case of the Tuscan. As the description of Vitru-
vius does not correspond with the examples now to be seen, it is
probable that he has confounded the measures of the original Doric
with those of the Roman Doric as practised in his time.
The Grecian architects, in their practice of this order, were care-
ful to preserve in it the severe Doric character. It does not appear,
however, that they were governed by any determinate rule in other
respects. Indeed, they used the order with great latitude, some-
times making the columns only four diameters four minutes in
height, and at others six diameters thirty-two minutes, differing as
widely in the details. The Romans increased the height of the
column to seven and a half or eight diameters, which example is
worthy of imitation, especially in private buildings, to which this
proportion is certainly better adapted than the Grecian. This order
is likewise plain and simple, and can be employed whenever strength
and simplicity are desired.
The Ionic order stands second in the Grecian, and third in the
Roman system of the orders. In both Greece and Rome many
ancient examples have been discovered which have been accurately
measured and transmitted to us. We have therefore an opportunity
of critically examining all the various examples, and of deliber.ately
deciding what parts it will be wise to imitate and what to reject.
It is however to be remembered, that all the ancient Grecian exam-
ples within our knowledge were employed to adorn edifices erected
for public purposes, which were mostly of an enormous size and of
such a construction as to require columns very large and thickly
set. It will therefore be highly proper in us to take into considera-
tion the uses to which these elegant temples were applied, their
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 27
size, their construction and their decorations, and compare them
with our times, our customs and our wants, and then to imitate, in
the whole or in part, any of these examples, with such alterations
and adaptations as will render them conformable to our purposes.
This order was borrowed of the Grecians by the Romans, in
whose hands it certainly lost much of its original character. Al-
though in the general proportions of the Grecian and Roman exam-
ples, the diflerence is not so striking as between the Doric examples,
yet in their details the difTerence is very apparent. The examples
most worthy of imitation are those of Grecian origin, except in a
few of the details, where the Roman are preferable. This subject
will be more fully treated of in the description of the Ionic order.
As the elements of this order are of a more delicate character
than any of the above-mentioned, and as it stands in an equipoise
between the massive proportions of the Doric and the original
delicacy of the Corinthiefn, it may be employed wherever graceful
elegance is desired.
The Corinthian order stands third in the Grecian, and fourth in
the Roman system. In Greece there are a few, and in Rome
many fine examples of this splendid order, which have been accu-
rately measured. It is of Grecian origin, and, as in the case of the
Ionic, was borrowed of its original proprietors by the Romans,
though it did not, like the latter, degenerate in their hands. It will,
I trust, be readily admitted that the Roman examples of the Corin-
thian order are as much superior to the Grecian, as the Grecian
examples of the Ionic are to the Roman.
" This order," says Sir William Chambers, " is suitable and
proper for buildings where elegance, gaiety and magnificence are
required. The ancients employed it in temples dedicated to Venus,
to Flora, to Proserpine and the nymphs of fountains, because the
2Q THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
flowers, foliage and volutes with which it is adorned, seemed well
adapted to the delicacy of such deities. Being the most splendid
of the five orders, it is also extremely proper for the decorations of
palaces, public squares, or galleries, and arcades surrounding them ;
for churches dedicated to the Virgin Mary, or to the Virgin Saints ;
and, on account of its rich, gay, and graceful appearance, it may
with singular propriety be used in theatres, in banqueting, and in all
places consecrated to festive mirth or convivial recreations."
The Roman Composite order. Many fine examples of this order
have been discovered in its native city, Rome, where it was held in
greater estimation than it has ever been elsewhere. It was gene-
rally employed in their triumphal arches. The elements are nearly
all borrowed from the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The base, the
shaft, and the lower part of the capital, are Corinthian ; the upper
part, Ionic ; the architrave, often a mixture of the Ionic and the
Corinthian. The frieze is splendidly ornamented. The cornice is
mostly Corinthian. The modillion is peculiar to this order, and has
never to my knowledge been used in any other. It is composed of
a large block, enclosed on three sides by two fascia and a crown-
ing moulding.
Some writers on architecture deny this composition the rank and
name of an order ; and indeed the objection is made with more
propriety than a similar one against the Tuscan order. I do not
see, however, that we gain any particular advantage by depriving
this ancient composition of a name and rank which it has held for
many centuries. This, in fact, is with us the only honor paid it, as
we seldom or never employ it in any of our structures.
fssais? ®m®isia.
IM.ATK V
29
THE TUSCAN ORDER.
PLATE V.
The Tuscan order is said to have been invented by the inhabi-
tants of Tuscany, before the Romans had any intercourse with the
Greeks, or had become acquainted with their arts and sciences. It
is to be lamented that no regular example of this order has been
discovered among the remains of antiquity. An example of Vitru-
vius, with his explanation, is the only source from whence we can
derive information upon this subject ; and this, taken as a whole, is
not worthy of our imitation. It may be divided into two distinct
parts, the good and the bad, or the column and the entablature.
The column is the good part, and has been pretty generally imitated
by all the modern architects ; the entablature is the bad part, and
has been as generally rejected. Some architects indeed have pre-
tended to admire the entablature ; but they have shown more wisdom
in practice, by rejecting it in most of their structures. The cornice
projects one fourth of the entire height of the column, and has
neither bed-mould nor corona. It consists of a cyma recta and its
two fillets, and is apparently supported by a few straggling, dispro-
portionate canti-leaves, with the cymatium of the corona wrou<Tht
across the end of each, and placed so as to form the Ionic crown
moulding against each of the canti-leaves, and the Tuscan crown
mouldings between them. Trajan's column, at Rome, is thought
by some to be of this order. This column is nearly eight diameters
in height, having a base nearly a copy of that left us by Vitruvius ;
but its capital and its general proportions partake strongly of the
Roman Doric character.
8
30 THE TUSCAN ORDER.
Some architects are unwilling to allow this column and entabla-
ture the honor of being ranked as one of the orders of architecture.
Say they, " It is nothing more than the Doric deprived of the mu-
tules and triglyphs, and a diameter or two added to the height of
the column." I cannot perceive the justness of these remarks. If
any one of the orders is to be altered into the Tuscan, the Ionic*
would certainly be more suitable for that purpose than the Doric.
Change its capital and base for those of the Tuscan, leave ofi" the
flutings on the shaft of the column, and deprive it of a diamet(!r or
two in height, and the change is complete.
In the examples of this order, as here exhibited, the colunm is
seven diameters in height, including the capital. This seems to
have been the universal standard of its height, from the time of
Vitruvius down to the present. Nevertheless, during a long course
of practice, it is probable that in half of the instances, where I have
had occasion to draw either of the orders, I have found the estab-
lished proportions ill suited to my purpose. Many circumstances
render different proportions both proper and necessary. The pro-
portions in fact depend upon the judgment. He who takes the
most comprehensive view of all the circumstances of the case, and
governs his judgment by the simple and undeviating rule of propor-
tioning the means to the end, will generally he, the most successful.
Take the case of a Venetian entrance recessed into a dwelling-
house, embellished by two columns, and two antae, their front line
corresponding to that of the front of the building. The whole front
above and directly over the entablature apparently depends on the
two columns for support. Under such circumstances, any one who
should fail to make a column nearly or quite a diameter less in
* As found on the Ionic Temple on the River Illissus.
THE TUSCAN ORDER. 31
height, than he would if the coUimns projected and were completely
insulated from the front line of the building and had nothing but
their entablatures to support, would soon be convinced of the error
in his judgment. When columns are to be erected, consider for
what end they are to be made : if for the support of any great
weight, then make them of a size sufficient to answer that end ; if
for ornament merely, and not for the support of any great burden,
construct them accordingly.
The example here exhibited does not differ essentially, in its gene-
ral proportions, from that left us by Palladio, its column being seven,
and its entablature two diameters in height. There is a difference
however in the details, between this and Palladio's, and most or all of
the other examples. The character of the Grecian Doric has been
imitated in several particulars. First, by leaving off the base; and
in the capital, the echinus and the channel which divides the capital
from the column. The necking is fluted in imitation of that in Tra-
jan's column at Rome. The architrave has only one fascia, the
crowning moulding of which is in Grecian style. The cornice is
divided into three parts ; the bed-mould, the corona, and the crown-
ing moulding.
The bed-mould is recessed up into the corona, so as almost to
conceal the ovolo. This allows all the parts of the cornice to be
somewhat enlarged and more strongly marked ; which gives them
more of that robust simplicity of character, which is peculiar to this
order. The corona and crown moulding of this example are some-
what increased in altitude, compared with those of Palladio. The
projection of the cyma recta is less than his, its outline forming a
.part of an ellipsis. The column diminishes twelve minutes. The
diminution may begin at one fourth from its base, and the outlines
of its sides be curved, as practised by the Romans ; or, which is
32 THE TUSCAN ORDER.
believed to be preferable, the diminution may begin at its base, in
the Grecian style, and the outline of its sides be straight or gently
curved outwards.
To draw this order to any given height, divide the height given
into nine equal parts, and give one to the diameter of the column
just above its base. Suppose a height of fifteen feet be required.
Divide fifteen feet into nine equal parts. One of the parts must be
one foot eight inches : this is the diameter of the column. Then
divide one foot eight inches into sixty equal parts, which are called
minutes. In practice this is easily done, by dividing one foot eight
inches into six equal parts, each of which will of course be ten min-
utes, and then dividing each sixth into ten equal parts, one of which
will be one minute. By this scale all the members of the order are
to be proportioned, either in height or projection, each member being
so many minutes of the scale, as is figured on the plate.
The directions here given for making a scale of minutes will
serve for all the remaining orders.
DETAILS OF THE TUSCAN ORDER
PLATE VI.
The outlines of which the mouldings of the Tuscan order are
composed, are exhibited on a large scale. These outlines are in the
true Grecian style. It will, therefore, be very important to the
student to examine the particular shape and character of each dili-
gently and carefully, and to imitate them exactly in his ]>ractice,
be they enlarged or diminished. For he must remember, that the
beauty or deformity of every composition of this kind depends mostly
'H'lcrsiCJisr ©aiiiyiEai,
yv u.
n
jfi.,. .V
h I 1 34 S 6__
33
7i
M.,. 'I.
IC
F)Ut.4. h,
THE TUSCAN ORDER. 33
upon the fitness of its mouldings. In the Grecian system the stu-
dent must especially strive to accustom his eye to discern the true
outline of each moulding ; since the superiority of the Grecian
system over the Roman is in nothing more conspicuous, than in the
beautiful variety of the outlines of its mouldings.
In the Roman system, a severe study of the mouldings is not
necessary. The outline, being a part of a circle, can easily be
described with the compasses.
Fig. 1 exhibits a true method of drawing a raking mouldinfj,
which will coincide with a given moulding, and also a return mould-
ing, which in like manner coincides with tlie raking mouldins;.
Let A be the given moulding. Draw the vertical line a e b and
c d, and join b d, whose length is equal to the projection of the
moulding. Divide the outline of the moulding from « to c into any
number of parts, either equal or unequal. This example is divided
into seven equal parts. From each one of the divisions draw vertical
lines, cutting b d at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Make the back line of B,
the raking moulding, at right angles with the raking line ; and that
of C, the return moulding, vertical or parallel to that of A. Make
b d in B, and b d in C, each equal to b d in A. The projections of
each will then be equal. From the outline of A, and at the points
a, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and c, draw lines parallel to the rake and extend
them through both B and C. Make b 1, b 2, b 3, b 4, b 5, b 6, and
6 d, on B and C, equal to the corresponding figures on A ; then
from the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on b d, in both B and C, draw lines
parallel to the back line of the mouldings, cutting the raking lines
before described at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Through these points,
and at a and c, trace the curve in both B and C, and the outline
is completed.
Fig. 2 shows the outline of the moulding and fillet to the archi-
9
34 COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE.
trave. Fig. 3 shows those of the capital. The necking of the
latter is decorated with twenty flutes, in exact imitation of Doric
flutes ; to the directions for fluting which, the reader is referred for
a knowledge of forming these. The line a b shows the depth and
termination of the flute under the annulet of the capital.
Fig. 4 shows an example of a base suitably constructed for this
column, if one is to be employed; though it is believed that the
column will generally succeed best without it.
Fig. 5 exhibits a capital for a pilaster, having the breadth of the
pilaster figured upon it.
COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE
PLATE VII.
I AM aware that the publication of anything in the shape of an
order, unless it be really one of the Grecian or Roman orders, is,
by persons well versed in architectui-e, thought to be little less than
heresy. Although I am not much disposed to difler with them in
their opinion, I have deemed it advisable in this case to depart from
it. My reasons for so doing proceed from the fact, that more than
one half of all the columns and entablatures erected in country
situations, for cither internal or external finishings, belong neither
to the Grecian nor Roman system. The same fact holds true in
relation to our cities and large towns. Any person who will take
the trouble to compute the numberof instances, in which some one of
the regular orders is employed in any street of our cities or villages,
will be convinced of the truth of this assertion. I have made the
comparison in two streets, which present more buildings of the first
(g^iL^FSiOsr j::^m :E^'^.^^'iL^'^wm,iM <
MI.ATK Vn
■niiiniiimiiiiintiimiTniiiintiimTiiimiinHmiim'.i
(inniiii II mni i imu ninti
iniinirammrvnnnninininr
COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 35
class, in proportion to tlieir number, than any other streets of their
lengtli in this city, and have found the regular orders employed in
only thirteen places, while other columqs and entablatures were
substituted in twenty-three places.
I have often inquired the reason of this, from very intelligent
workmen, and have as often received for answer that the Tuscan
order is too massive and plain, the Doric too expensive, and the
Ionic too rich, and that they are therefore under the necessity of
composing a column and entablature which will conform to the
views and purses of their employers.
With these facts before me, no doubts rest in my mind but what
it would be better to give a design here of a column and entablature,
constructed on scientific principles, and of a character capable of
meeting the views and practice above mentioned, than to leave it
to be composed by unskilful hands. ^
In the composition here exhibited, the shaft of the column, to-
gether with its flutes and fillets, are in imitation of that found in the
interior of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae. This column was
crowned with a very singular Ionic capital, of an angular form.
Its base was also singular in its composition. Neither of them,
however, were deficient in beauty. The shaft has here been adopt-
ed on account of its novel, graceful and simple aspect. The flutes
in their section are in exact imitation of the best Grecian Doric
flutes, but differ from any of the Doric examples by being separated
by very small fillets, which are in breadth equal to one fifth or sixth
of the breadth of the flute. The flutes are twenty in number, and
descend and terminate on the scape of the column, in an elliptical
form, like their section. They also terminate at their upper extre-
mity on the scape in the same manner. All the details of the flutes
and fillets, and also those of the whole composition, are very accu-
36 COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE.
rately drawn on a large scale and figured in minutes. Great care
has been taken to give to the outline of all the mouldings the true
Grecian character.
The base is in its general form somewhat like that given by
Vitruvius in his Tuscan order ; but the torus is elliptical, and fluted,
in imitation of some of the best Grecian examples of the Ionic base.
The base is not therefore either Tuscan or Ionic, but it stands in
equipoise between the two.
The capital is imitated from that found on the newly discovered
temple at Cadachio, in the island of Corfu. In its annulets, it par-
takes of both the Grecian and Roman schools ; but in the remain-
incr details it is purely Grecian, and a beautiful specimen of their
system.
The entablature is two diameters in height, and is divided into
three parts : the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice ; the details
of which have been selected with a view to economy and an adap-
tation to the column and to modern practice. In the cornice, the
corona has a great projection and height ; the crown moulding has
also a great height, but a small projection. The bed-mould is some-
what singular in its form, and about one half its altitude is recessed
up into the plancer of the corona, which allows the members of the
cornice to be somewhat enlarged. With one single exception, each
moulding of this composition is indebted to some one of the conic
sections for its beautiful variety of outline. As the selection and
arrangement of the elements, which compose this column and enta-
blature, have been the cause of much research and great solicitude,
I hope that, when it shall be decided not to employ either of the
regular orders, this composition may be found worthy of being
made a substitute.
It is supposed that the larger and better class of edifices will
COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 37
always be decorated with some one of the orders, as the proprietor
will be amply compensated for the difference in expense, by the
chaste and classic appearance of his building. It is to be expected,
therefore, that this design will be used only on the smaller and
cheaper class of buildings ; in which case it will seldom be required
to make the column larger than the Ionic proportions, say nine
diameters.
If this example is to be used for a portico, where the house is of
small dimensions, the windows and doors likewise being of a small
size, it will be most proper to make the column, at least, nine dia-
meters in height. On the contrary, if the house be of a large size,
as also the doors and windows, it will be advisable to make the
column about eight diameters in height.
PLATE VIII.
On this plate are exhibited, on a large scale, the details of the
Column and Entablature of the preceding plate.
Fig. 1 represents the cornice, with its members figured in minutes.
It must be remembered, that those mouldings, which are recessed
up under the member next above them, show here their whole height,
and they are figured accordingly. But in the preceding plate, that
part only is figured which is seen in a direct front view.
Fig. 2 exhibits the outline of the architrave ; fig. 3, that of the
capital ; and fig. 4, of the base. The lines d c, on the shaft of the
column near the base, and also h a, on the neck of the column,
represent the depth of the flute, and its termination at each end.
Fig 5 exhibits the plan of the plinth and base of the column.
The line f shows the extreme outline of the base moulding ; e, the
outline of the fillet, which joins the scape ; c, the line encircling the
lower diameter of the column ; b, the upper diameter ; and a, the
10
38 THE DORIC ORDER.
depth of the channel which separates the capital from the shaft of
the column.
In order to flute the shaft of this colunm, first divide its periphery
into twenty equal parts, and subdivide one of those into six equal
parts. Make each flute equal to five, and each fillet to one of these
parts. Make the section of the flute elliptical and in imitation of
this example, which is one and three fourths of a minute in depth
at the lower diameter, and one and one half minute at the upper
diameter. The lines, at the letter d, exhibit the termination of the
flute on the scape.
THE DORIC ORDER
PLATE IX.
In the early practice of the Doric order, by the Greeks, the alti-
tude of the column was usually about four diameters ; but in later
times, this altitude was increased to six, or six and one half diame-
ters. Most or all of the details of the order experienced, in like
manner, a change. It does not appear that any two, of even the
best specimens, and those too which were erected at the same period,
agree either in their general or their particular parts.
But nowhere are to be found omitted the twenty flat flutes w^ith-
out intervening fillets, the triglyphs in the frieze and the mutules in
the cornice, with all their appendages. These formed the distin-
guishing features of the order. Their distribution has always been
uniform. No deviation whatever was allowed. It was by the
undeviatinff arrangements of these elements that Grecian architects
were enabled, notwithstanding the latitude used in other less impor-
JDiDiaSig ®3a.lE)IllE.
P H
40
J4i
ji^^ f .., iiliiii(iiiiiraiiiiiiiiiiiiiii||
~' ir;iiilir-,iir
01' m
Jillll!iilllllllll!lllll!l!llllllillllili!lilillllllllll!lilllli!i!li!lll!lllll»^
THE DORIC ORDER. 39
tant respects, to maintain rigidly the Doric character in all their
structures of that order. The Grecian arcliitects, therefore, were
not servile imitators, though followers of a general system. They
evidently understood well the universal rule of proportioning the
means to the end ; a rule which has been mentioned here often
enough to show that it is thought to be of vital importance.
The diminution of the shaft of the column was different in
diflercnt examples. That of the Temple of Minerva was thirteen
minutes. The lines making the boundary were straight, or gently
curved outwards. The periphery was generally divided into twenty
equal parts, each part being the breadth of a flute ; which, in most
of the best examples, commenced at the lower extremity of the
column, and terminated under the first annulet of the capital. In
some of the best specimens, however, the flutes extend up the column
only about ten minutes, and, at the upper extremity of the column,
from the first annulet of the capital down to the channel, which
divides the capital from the shaft. There are also one or two fine
examples, in which the column is divided into only sixteen flutes,
the section of which is elliptical.
When the section of the flute was a segment of a circle, it was
drawn from the summit of an equilateral triangle, whose sides were
equal to the breadth of a flute. Its section was generally elliptical,
and when so its depth was about the same as when a part of a circle.
The capital was divided into three parts ; the abacus, the echinus,
its annulets and the necking. The abacus varies from nine to
twelve minutes in height, having the faces plain. Under and ad-
joining it, is the echinus, whose outline resembles that of a chesnut,
and is, in the best specimens, either elliptical or hyperbolical. This
moulding, together with the annulets, is generally equal in height
to the abacus.
40 THE DORIC ORDER.
The annulets are in number from three to five, falHng off under
each other vertically, like an inverted flight of steps, and partaking
of the general outline of the echinus in the arrangement of their
angles. In the best examples, at about thirty minutes below the top
of the abacus, is a channel, of about one half of a minute in breadth,
and three in depth, sunk equally all around the shaft, v^^hich divides
the capital from the shaft of the column.
The height of the entablature varies in different examples. The
example taken from the Temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis, which
is one of the most perfect specimens of the order, is very near two
diameters in height. It is divided into three parts ; the architrave,
the frieze, and the cornice. These members, also, vary in different
examples. The architrave and the frieze in the same exam])les are
very nearly equal in height. The height of the cornice varies from
twenty-one to thirty-two minutes. The frieze and architrave of the
Temple of Minerva are each forty-three, and the cornice thirty-
three minutes in height. The face of the architrave is always one
uniform plane, divided from the frieze by a band or tenia of rectan-
gular form, which continues along the entablature in one unbroken
plane. Under this band, and immediately under each triglyph, are
regula, or fillets, to which are attached six conical drops. The
ends of each regula, and the extremities of the drops, are in the
same vertical line with the edges of the triglyph above. The drops
are frustums of very acute cones, approaching nearly to cylinders.
Their height never exceeds- three-fourths of their diameter at the
base.
The frieze is decorated with triglyphs and metopes. The trig-
lyphs are from twenty-seven and one half to thirty-one minutes in
breadth, and about three minutes in thickness. Their length is
equal to that of the breadth of the frieze. The angle of the frieze
THE DORIC ORDER. 41
is always finished by two triglyphs, meeting each other in such a
manner that the channels are common to both. The metopes in
the temples of Theseus and Minerva, were enriched with historical
representations of the most exquisite workmanship. None of the
embellishments, however, were allowed to project much beyond the
frame which enclosed them.
The cornice is a distinguished feature in this order. It has a
sloping plancer to indicate the inclination of the rafters in the roof;
and under the plancer, mutules, with three rows of drops, six in each
row, hung to their under surface. The mutules are equal in breadth
to the triglyphs. They are so distributed, that the centre of one is
exactly over that of a triglyph ; and of another, exactly over the
centre of every metope. The centres of a mutule and triglyph are
to range over that of each column, except the one supporting the
angle of the entablature. The corona is very broad, and the crown-
ing moulding, in most of the examples, and in all of the best speci-
mens, is composed of a cymatium and fillet, or ovolo with a fillet
above it.
This ancient order, as practised by the Romans, and also by the
moderns until after Stuart and Revet published their splendid work
on Grecian architecture, lost much of its original character. It does
not appear to have been much a favorite among the Romans, who
have left us but few examples of it. That of the Theatre of Mar-
cellus is esteemed the most perfect. The column of that example
is seven diameters and fifty-eight minutes in height, without a base,
and stands on a step. The shaft of the column is not fluted. The
capital consists of three parts ; the abacus, the echinus with its
annulets, and the necking. The abacus is ca])ped by a cymatium,
which renders its appearance so small and trifling that it will not
compare with the Grecian original. The outline of the echinus is
11
42 THE DORIC ORDER.
a part of a circle, and consequently likewise inferior to the Grecian
original, which is either an ellipsis or an hyperbola. The annulets
under the echinus are large, and well proportioned to themselves
and to the capital.
The capital is finished by a necking, encircling the column at
about thirty minutes from the upper extremity of the abacus. This
necking, in imitation of that employed at the base of the Corinthian
capital, is a substitute for that graceful channelling, which encircles
the neck of every Grecian Doric column, anil is one of the charac-
teristics of the order.
As a part of the cornice of this example is wanting, the exact
height of the entablature cannot be ascertained ; but it could not
have been far from one diameter fifty-three minutes. The archi-
trave is thirty-one minutes in height ; the frieze, forty-six ; and the
cornice, thirty-six. The architrave is in one plane, capped by a
tenia of rectangular form, also in one plane. Under each triglyph
is a regula, whose length is equal to the breadth of the triglyph, to
which are hung six conical drops. Tiie face of the frieze recedes
about two minutes from the vertical line of the architrave. The
triglyphs, therefore, project about one half of their thickness, or two
minutes. They are thirty-one minutes in breadth, and forty-five min-
utes distant from each other, and are decorated on the face with
two channels and two half channels. A centre of a triglyph is
placed over the centre of each column. The cornice has a sloping
plancer, ornamented with mutules, one over each triglyph, and en-
riched with three rows of drops, six in each row. Both mutules
and drops are recessed up into the corona behind a small moulding,
so as to be wholly concealed from a direct front view. The next
member below the mutules is a denticulated band, supported by a
cymatium. The corona and crowning moulding are both large and
THE DORIC ORDER. 43
well proportioned. The cornice has a great projection, and is well
proportioned to itself and the entablature ; nevertheless, the beauti-
ful dentil in this cornice is out of its place, as it belongs peculiarly
to the Ionic cornice, of which it is characteristic.
There were other examples of the order discovered among the
Roman antiquities, which were very rich and beautiful, although
the legitimate Doric character had been departed from.
That at Albano, near Rome, holds a high rank amongst the Ro-
man examples. Its general proportions do not differ essentially from
those of the Theatre of Marcellus. The column is left plain ; and
in the capital an astragal is substituted for the annulets. The echi-
nus and cymatium of the abacus are both enriched. The architrave
is divided into two faces, and separated from the frieze by a bead,
with a fillet above and a fillet below it. This moulding is broken
over the triglyphs, and the drops under it are hung from the lower
extremity of the fillet. The triglyphs in the irieze are so distributed
as to form the metopes into a geometrical square ; and the metopes
themselves are decorated with sculpture of a very rich character.
A mutule is placed directly over each triglyph, the edges of which
arc composed of a cymatium with a fillet above it ; and, hung to its
plancer, are thirty-six conical drops, six in front and six in flank,
whose lengths are equal to their largest diameter. The mutule fin-
ishes against a band, or fillet, which is immediately above the capping
and separated by it from the triglyph. The corona has a great
projection, and together with the crown moulding has likewise a
very respectable breadth. The cornice and frieze are well propor-
tioned to each other and to the whole composition. They partake
more strongly of the original Doric character than those of any
other Roman example. The architrave is too low and in bad taste.
The capital is too rich ; and, in imitation of all the other Roman
44 THE DORIC ORDER.
examples, a clumsy necking is substituted for the beautiful chan-
nelling of the original Doric column.
In selecting the example here offered to the public, my intention
has been to adopt such parts of the ancient examples, without regard
to the school or country from whence they were taken, as after
due consideration were supposed to be best adapted to the present
practice.
I have given eight diameters to the height of the column, in imi-
tation of Roman and modern practice ; and to the entablature, two
diameters of the column ; because, after a long jjractice and due
consideration, I am persuaded that, for a general proportion, it is to
be preferred to any other, and that the average of the Grecian
entablatures were nearly of this height.
Sir William Chambers and some other modern architects have
proportioned the entablature by the height of the column, and not
by its thickness, making it one fourth part of that height. This
practice should not be imitated. A Doric column, one foot in
diameter, would be eight feet in height. The above rule would give
one fourth of this height, or two feet, to the height of the entablature.
But a Corinthian column, one foot in diameter, would be ten feet in
height ; and therefore the same rule would make the height of the
entablature two feet six inches. Now it will be readily admitted,
that the Doric column, of one foot in diameter and eight feet in
height, is capable of sustaining a greater weight than the Corinthian
column of the same diameter and ten feet in height. This rule is
therefore defective ; because the Corinthian column would not be
capable of sustaining so heavy a weight as the Doric, at the same
time that it would be loaded with an entablature one fifth higher
than that of the Doric. On the authority of Vitruvius, we suppose
that the proportions of the Doric order were taken from those of a
THE DORIC ORDER. 45
robust man ; and of the Corinthian, from those of a young female ;
and it appears inconsistent to load the latter, therefore, with a
greater burden than the former.
It is not however supposed that two diameters of the column will
at all times and in all places be the best proportion for the entabla-
ture. Circumstances may require the proportion to be varied.
When used for inside finishing, or any other place where lightness
is desired, the entablature may be lowered to one hundred and ten
or fifteen minutes ; and when it is charged, or apparently charged,
with any very heavy burden, it may in that case be raised to the
height of an hundred and twenty-five or thirty minutes.
There is not, to my knowledge, a single instance among all the
ancient examples of this order, where a base is added to the column,
the column being so large as not to require one for the sake of an
appearance of stability.
In this example I have adopted the ancient practice. There may,
however, cases arise in practice, where it would be proper to add a
base ; as, for instance, when the whole composition is small, and the
column apparently required to support some heavy burden ; and,
when the lower extremity, viewed in connection with the burden
upon the column, does not appear capable of sustaining the weight
without indenting itself into the plinth or step on which it stands ;
in which cases the attic base would add to the beauty and apparent
stability of the whole composition.
In the fluting of the column, and also in the formation of the
capital, the Grecian practice has been imitated, with one deviation ;
which deviation is to be found in the number of annulets in the
capital. In the Grecian practice, from three to five was the con-
stant number employed ; but the largest number occupies a space
of only two minutes, which, when divided into nine lines or angles,
12
46 THE DORIC ORDER.
the number required for their formation, reduces each member to so
small a space as to render it indistinct. They are not therefore in
keeping with the massive details of the remaining parts of the order.
In this example the Grecian arrangement of the annulets is pre-
served, but the number is reduced to two.
In the divisions of the entablature, the Grecian practice has been
imitated. The frieze is in one plane, capped by a tenia, under
which, and directly under each triglyph, is a regula, to which are
suspended six drops or guttse. They are not in imitation of either
the Greek or Roman practice, but a mean between the two.
The angles of the frieze are finished by two triglyphs, meeting
each other so that the half channels on the edges of each triglyph
are in the same plane. The triglyphs are thirty minutes in front,
and seventy-five from centre to centre, leaving the metopes forty-
five minutes. A triglyph must be placed exactly over the centre of
each column, except those which support the angles of the entabla-
ture. Under the plancer of the cornice, and directly over each
triglyph, and also over each metope, is placed a mutule, whose
width is equal to the breadth of the triglyph ; and to the under sur-
face of each mutule are hung eighteen drops in three rows, of six
in each row.
PLATE X.
Fig. 1 exhibits a method of diminishing the shaft of a column in
the Roman style. Let the line A B be the centre and height of the
shaft. On A, with a radius of one half of the diameter at the base
of the column, describe the half circle o c. Draw 4 a, parallel to
o c, and equal to the diameter of the column at its neck. Divide o
4, on the circular line, into four equal parts, and join 3 e, 2 d, and
If. Divide A B into four parts. Make the diameter at 1 equal to
moRiicc ©mroiEiR.
/•/ ir
tig I
Fig 2
»;
T.i
V
1
■'■'' 1 ^
'•1 ^
'<! =>
A ^
•,',
■«
l.'im
Ui-
THE DORIC ORDER. 47
If; at 2, to 2d; and at 3, to 3 e ; and draw the curve lines o h and
c g, which will give the outline required.
This method of diminishing columns is introduced here, because
custom seems to require it, and not as a recommendation for its use.
I do not know of any situation where the Grecian system is not
decidedly preferable. It is said that the shafts of columns were at
first made of trunks of trees, and afterwards in imitation of them.
But although the trunk of a tree diminishes upwards, yet the lines
of its sides are straight, or nearly so ; so that the Grecian architects
showed their wisdom in closely adhering to this natural and grace-
ful form. It is well known that a column, whose sides are in straight
lines, will appear as though its sides were gently curved inwards ;
for which cause the Grecian architects undoubtedly made the sides
of their columns to swell gently outwards, with the intention that
tkey should appear to be straight to the eye. This practice should
be imitated.
Fig. 2 exhibits a design for a capital to a pilaster ; fig. 3, that of
a column. Fig. 4 shows one quarter of the plan of the column at
both base and neck, having described upon it the section of the
flutes. The dotted line d a is the boundary of the diameter at the
base, and e b that at the neck. The line c/" shows the depth of the
channel, which separates the shaft from the capital. Fig. 5 shows
a method of describing the outline of a Doric flute by centres. Di-
vide o 5, the breadth of a flute, into five equal parts ; and on o and
5, with a radius equal to o 5, make the intersection d ; and from d,
through the points 1 and 4, draw lines produced to b and c ; then
divide each of the lines d 4 and d 1 into five equal parts ; on a and
a, with the radius « 5 or « o, describe o b and c 5. Lastly, on d, with
the radius d c, or d b, describe b c.
This method of describing a flute by centres has been exhibited
48 THE DORIC ORDER.
more for the purpose of showing the student some rule by which he
may be governed in relation to the general shape and depth of the
flute, than of recommending it as the best method of forming the
outline. It should be remembered that a real ellipsis is in all situ-
ations to be preferred to an imitation made by parts of circles.
PLATE XI.
On this plate are represented the details of the Doric Entablature,
the outlines of which are accurately drawn on a large scale, and
figured, with all those members uncovered which are necessarily
concealed, in a direct front view, behind the member next above
them.
Fig. 1 exhibits the cornice with the plancer inverted. H H shows
designs of the mutules, with all their parts figured in minutes. G
shows a section of the triglyph with its cap. The honeysuckle here
introduced was frequently employed in the best Grecian examples
to decorate that plain part of the plancer, and it is admirably adapted
to that purpose. It may, however, be left off with propriety, when
expense is to be avoided, or when plainness is desired.
Fig. 3 exhibits an example of the triglyph with its details, all of
which are accurately figured in minutes. A represents a front, and
B a side view of one of the guttse, drawn on a large scale. C shows
the inverted plan of A, and D that of B. The circular line / en-
closes the base of A and e, the neck. B is supposed to match the
angle of the architrave, as is shown at E. h at D shows the larger,
and g the smaller diameter of the gutta). F shows the depth of
the channelling of the triglyph, and also its form at its upper
extremity.
s®s5rs(S cBiaffi):im.i
I I'lW i 1 1 i I 'g
■:f!
2-h
-rtr
-ess:
■1*4
-lie
MS
loH
49
THE IONIC ORDER
PLATE XII.
I SHALL here speak of the examples and practice of this order by
its original proprietors, the Greeks, and likewise by the Romans.
There have been many fine examples discovered among the
antiquities of Greece : and although, like the Doric, the Ionic order
appears from these examples to have been practised by the Greeks
with great latitude ; since some were decorated with a profusion of
mouldings, which were covered with the most beautiful enrichments,
while others had but few mouldings, and these exceedingly plain ;
yet all adhere strongly to a certain original and peculiar form.
The height of the column was originally eight diameters. Its
shaft was decorated with twenty-four flutes, and as many fillets. In
many of the best specimens, the flutes descended and followed the
curve to the scape of the column. The base was generally about
one half of the diameter of the column, and wholly composed of
mouldings ; the step on which it stood, answering for a plinth. When
of the attic kind, the scotia was very flat, its section forming an
elliptic curve, and was divided from the upper torus by a fillet.
It generally projected as far as the extremity of the torus, and was
therefore very much exposed to fracture, especially if of small
dimensions. It had a very unsolid aspect, and was in fact inferior
in solidity and fitness to the attic base, as practised by the Romans.
The base to the columns of the Ionic Temple, on the river Illyssus,
had its upper torus flutied.
The great distinguishing feature of the Ionic order, is the capital.
In the best specimens, the lower edge of the channel, which runs
13
50 THE IONIC ORDER.
between the volutes, is formed into a curve bending downwards in
the middle and revolving about the spirals on either side. In some
examples, each volute has two channels, formed by two distinct
spiral borders. The borders forming the exterior volute and the
under side of the lower channel, have between ihem a deep recess,
or spiral groove, which diminishes gradually in breadth till it is lost
to the eye.
In this last example, there are so many spiral lines revolving
about the eye, that, unless the volute be extremely large, the parts
will appear confused and indistinct. It will not therefore be the
best example for imitation.
One of the best examples of this capital, for imitation, is taken
from the Temple on the river Illyssus. The simple dignity and
grandeur of its parts, the beautiful contour of the volutes, and the
graceful curve of the hem hanging between them, arc in themselves
calculated to render it superior to most others. Another very beau-
tiful and more ornamented example of this capital is taken from
the Temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene. The proportions are
somewhat varied from those of the last example ; but they are
equally elegant and worthy of imitation.
In most of the Asiatic remains of this order, the frieze is missing,
and therefore the height of the entablature cannot be accurately
ascertained. The only instance in which a frieze has been disco-
vered, is in the Theatre at Laodicea. There, it is somewhat less
than one fifth of the height of the entablature. In the Asiatic prac-
tice, groat deviations were allowed. For instance, in the little Ionic
Temple near the river Illyssus, we see the cornice deprived of its
legitimate ornament the dentil, and the architrave separated from
the frieze by an ovolo, which was finished by a bead below, and
above by a fillet, the fascia of the architrave being very broad and in
THE IONIC ORDER. 51
one vertical plane. The bed-mould consists of a cyma reversa, fin-
ished below with a bead, both of which are recessed up into the
soffit of the corona. The corona has a great projection and height.
The crown moulding is a cyma recta of great height and small
projection, separated from the corona by a cymatium and fillet. The
mouldings are all left entire, without any enrichments whatever.
In other examples, such as the Temple of Bacchus at Teos, and
the Temple of Minerva Polias at Priene, the entablatures have
the dentil, accompanied by a number of chaste and appropriate
mouldings, the contours of which are ornamented with a profusion
of delicate enrichments. Although a marked difference is to be
seen in the j)roportions of these two examples, they are, notwith-
standing, both of them extremely beautiful. The architrave is com-
posed of three plain fascise, separated from the frieze by an ovolo,
which is finished below with a bead, and above with a cavetto and
fillet. It has before been stated that the frieze was missing, and it
cannot, therefore, be ascertained whether it was ornamented or
plain ; but as the other parts of the composition were highly orna-
mented, it is reasonable to suppose that this member was so like-
wise. The cornices in these two examples do not differ essentially,
the dentil being common to both ; but, in the Temple of Minerva,
they are singularly prominent, having a projection equal to that of
the modillion employed in this order by Palladio and other modern
architects. The moulding which separated the dentil from the frieze
is wanting ; but probably it was an ovolo and a bead, like the one
which crowns and finishes the bed-mould. This moulding is recessed
up into the soffit of the corona, which nearly conceals its height.
The corona has a great projection, and is finished above by a cyma-
tium and fillet, and crowned by a cyma recta of great height and
small projection. In all the Asiatic Ionics, the crownings of the
cornices are cyma recta less in projection than in height.
52 THE IONIC ORDER.
Among the Roman examples we observe great deviations, the
effect of which is to degenerate the beautiful Ionic, so happily pre-
served in all the Greek examples. In the shaft of the column no
marked difference appears to have existed, except in the example
from the Temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome, which had only
twenty flutes and as many fillets. The base of this example is of
the attic kind, and its details are well proportioned to themselves
and the columns. Taken as a whole, it is a beautiful specimen,
much superior in arrangement and effect to any of" the Asiatic Ionic
bases. The different members of which the capital is composed,
do not bear that harmonious proportion to each other which appears
in the beautiful Greek original. The echinus, and the astragal
below it, are too massive for the remaining part of the composition,
and the space between the upper extremity of the echinus and the
lower edge of the fillet of the volute is too small. The entablature
is one hundred and thirty-eight minutes in height. The architrave
is thirty-nine minutes, of the same height, and is divided into three
fasciae, the upper edges of which recede about one fourth of a minute
from a vertical line. The middle fascia is singularly decorated with
an ornamented bead, situated near its centre, and is capped by a
very flat cyma reversa and a broad fillet above it. The frieze is
twenty-nine minutes in height, and is profusely ornamented. The
cornice is seventy minutes in height. Its bed-mould is composed of
a dentil band, faintly marked, and is separated from the frieze by
a cyma reversa with its fillets, and a band of singular shape, above
which is an ovolo, which finishes the bed-mould.
The corona is very low, and in shape and arrangement resembles
that in Palladio's Tuscan order. The mouldings above it consist
of a cymatium, a broad fillet and a cyma recta, of great height and
projection. All the mouldings in the entablature, except the cyma-
tium under the crown moulding, are highly enriched.
THE IONIC ORDER. 53
A leading defect in this cornice is, that the corona does not suffi-
ciently predominate over the other members. It seems to have lost
its honorable station as principal. This defect might have been
removed by giving to the corona more projection and more height.
Another striking defect is in the too great abundance and magni-
tude of the mouldings, particularly of those above the corona. The
cornice occupies the large space of seventy minutes, which is in
itself a defect, incapable of being remedied by the most judicious
distribution of its details.
The next Roman example of which I shall speak, is taken from
the Theatre of Marccllus at Rome. The capital is more defective
than that last described ; but in the entablature, the proportions are
more judiciously arranged. The cornice is not so massive, nor so
abundant in mouldings. The architrave is composed of three plain
fascia3, separated from the frieze by a cyma reversa and fillet. Al-
though this entablature, both in the whole and in its parts, is decid-
edly preferable to that of the foregoing example, still it falls far
short of the Greek originals, and is not therefore worthy of our
imitation.
Another example, taken from the Coliseum at Rome, is, in its
entablature, divided into three parts. The architrave is similar to
the one last described, having the fasciae not in a vertical line, but
receding by their top edge about three fourths of a minute. The
frieze is plain. The bed-mould of the cornice is composed of a
dentil, finished below by a cymatium, and above by an ovolo. The
corona has a good projection, and is tolerably high. The crown
moulding is composed of a cymatium, fillet and cyma recta of good
proportions. The capital is slightly finished, the volutes ending
after about one and a quarter revolutions. It is in its proportions
similar to the two last described.
14
54 THE IONIC ORDER.
Only one more Roman example will be mentioned, and this not
as an example worthy of imitation, but that we may avoid it.
This example is from the Temple of Concord at Rome. The
capital being of the angular kind, its volutes are very small and
bolstered up on a series of mouldings of large size and not at all
adapted to the capital. Although the mouldings are highly enrich-
ed, yet the capital is defective in all its details, no one seeming to
be well adapted to the place it occupies.
The architrave consists of two plain fasciae and a cavetto. The
projection of the frieze is equal to that of the architrave. The
architrave did not extend across the front of the temple. The whole
space between the lower extremity of the cornice down to the capi-
tal is in one plane, without any intervening moulding.
The cornice is of itself singularly constructed. In the bed-mould
it has dentils and mutules, the dentils being small and the mutules
of a novel construction. The plancer of the cornice is enriched
with a panel recessed up into the soffit of the corona, and between
each two of the mutules, in which is a very rich rosette. This cor-
nice, with some alterations, might be used with success in many
situations ; but it does not belong to the legitimate Ionic.
The example here exhibited is decidedly Grecian, the base being
the only member which can claim any affinity to the Roman prac-
tice. The different members of this composition have been care-
fully selected from the most approved specimens of this order, with
such deviations therefrom as were supposed necessary to adapt them
completely to the American practice. Nor were they hastily brought
into the form which they now assume ; for my practice, as an
architect, has favored me with frequent opportunities of having this
example* wrought by the most skilful workmen, and of removing
* The other orders, and nearly every example, in this publication, have gone through the same process as
that of the Ionic order.
THE IONIC ORDER. 55
original defects, after a diligent examination of each member sepa-
rately and collectively.
The column is here supposed to be nine diameters in altitude ; a
height which seems to be the standard for modern practice. Its
base is attic, and in imitation of the Roman practice. The shaft
of the column is divided into twenty-four flutes, and as many fillets.
The capital is, with some deviations, taken from that found on the
Ionic Temple on the river Illyssus at Athens. The entablature is
two diameters in height. The architrave is divided into three fas-
ciae, of nearly equal height. The cornice is decorated with its
legitimate ornament the dentil.
PLATE XIII.
On this plate are exhibited the details of the Ionic order. Those
of the preceding orders having been fully illustrated in their proper
place, it is hardly necessary to repeat nearly the same explana-
tions here.
B exhibits a plan of one quarter of the column at its base, and
also at its neck, with the flutes and fillets drawn thereon. It has
been stated before, that twenty-four flutes and as many fillets are
the constant number employed to decorate the column. If you
divide this quarter, therefore, into six parts, and one of these again
into four parts, three of the latter will be equal to the breadth of a
flute, and one to that of a fillet. On 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, as centres,
describe the flutes. The outline of each flute will then be one half
of a circle ; which is, perhaps, the most suitable shape for the sec-
tion of the flute, if the column be of small dimensions and does not
exceed about fifteen inches in diameter ; but if its size be much
increased, it will be well to cause the outline of its section to form
56 THE IONIC ORDER.
an ellipsis, the breadth and depth of which may be in about the pro-
portion of A. A section of the latter kind is drawn, by dividing the
breadth of the flute into four parts, and on 1 and 3, and with the
radius 1 3, making the intersection a; through 1 and 3, drawing a 1
produced to c, and also a 3 produced to e ; on 1 describing b c, and
on 3 describing 4 e ; and then on a describing e c.
It may be asked by some, why the section of a flute should be a
half circle on a column of small dimensions, and an ellipsis on one
of large dimensions. The reasons are, that a flute of one inch or
less in breadth will not be too strongly marked when its depth is
equal to one half of its breadth ; nor is the tasteless outline of a half
circle so apparent in that case as in a flute of larger dimensions.
And again, when the flutes are of large dimensions and wrought on
stone, the elliptical form saves considerable labor ; and if made of
wood, the same form will not require planks of so great thickness
as the half circle.
Second Example of the Ionic Order.
PLATE XIV.
This example is in imitation of that taken from the little Ionic
Temple near the river Illyssus at Athens, with such deviations as
were supposed necessary to adapt it to modern practice. The
column is an exact fac-simile of its prototype, with the exception
of a little more diminution in the shaft. The base is without a
plinth, and the upper torus is fluted. In the proportion of its mould-
ings and their outlines, a considerable deviation is perceptible. In
the capital, the height of the volutes is exactly equal to that of
the original ; but their breadth is somewhat reduced, so that they
approach near to the elliptical form. The fillet which forms the
ir(D):Ef ic vcDiL m ''[p ]E <
I'l. w.
irio.K'jiir V(DiLiTiTTi-iE.
I'l. i/K
THE IONIC ORDER. 57
boundary of the volutes is plain, the bead in the original being left
off. This fillet is not in a vertical line, but projects in its course
to the eye about one minute. The honeysuckle, whose stem springs
from the point of separation between the volute and hem, which
connects the two volutes, is somewhat enlarged, and extends down
over a part of the echinus.
The entablature is only two diameters in altitude. The archi-
trave and frieze are nearly equal in height. To the band of th6
architrave is added one moulding more than is found in the original.
The frieze was ornamented with sculpture ; and the circumstance
that a large space was required to give it sufficient boldness, was
probably the cause of the entablature being made of an extraordi-
nary height, and of the bed-mould being reduced in size. It was
wholly recessed up into the sofiit of the corona. In this example,
as the frieze is plain, the bed-mould is considerably enlarged ; but
the same outlines of mouldings are retained as are to be found in
the original. The other parts of the cornice do not differ essentially
from their prototype.
PLATE XV.
On this plate the cornice, architrave, and the base of the prcced-.
ing plate, drawn on a large scale, are exhibited. The base is in
the Grecian taste. Its upper torus is fluted ; and the lower one is
elliptical, and supposed to stand on a step. The student has already
been advised of the importance of faithfully imitating the outline of
Grecian mouldings.
PLATE XVL
On this plate is exhibited a method of drawing the Ionic volute,
particularly adapted to the two preceding capitals. At the distance
15
58 THE IONIC ORDER.
of two minutes from the shaft of the column, draw the vertical line
a 6. On the point o as a centre, which is twenty minutes distant
from a, describe the eye, giving it a diameter of seven minutes.
At the distance of one and one fourth of a minute above and below
the eye, draw lines at right angles with a 6 ; and at the distance of
one and one half of a minute from 6 a, and parallel with 6 a, draw
the line 10 11. This completes the outline of the square. Then,
from the point o, draw diagonals to 10 and 11 ; divide o 10, and o
11, each into three equal parts, and from those points, and at right
angles with 6 a, draw lines, cutting the diagonals at 2 6, and 3 7 ;
and those points, together with the angles of the square, and 12,
will be the twelve centres, from which the volute must be drawn.
On 1 in the square, and with the radius 1 c, describe c d. On 2,
and with the radius 2 d, describe d e. On 3, and with the radius
3 e, describe e f. On 4, and with the radius 4 f, describe f g.
This completes one revolution. From 5, describe g h ; on 6, de-
scribe/^^; on 7, describe « J ; on 8, describe j /v ; on 9, describe
k I ; on 10, describe I m ; on 11, describe m n ; and on 12, which, it
must be observed, is one minute on the left hand side of the square,
describe n p ; which completes the outline of the volute. To draw
the inside line of the fillet, divide its breadth into twelve parts, and
make the fillet at ?i equal to eleven of them. Then make m equal
to ten parts, and I equal to nine parts, and continue to diminish the
fillet one twelfth at each quarter of a revolution, until it loses itself
in a point at the upper extremity of the eye.
B exhibits the extreme outline of the fillet and eye of the volute,
figured in minutes.
/'/ /;
I©^tt;C iri;^FI*TJ>^lL
-^f^
/O r--\ A^ r
Side Elevaticn
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 59
PLATE XVII.
On this plate are exhibited an inverted plan and a front and side
elevation of the Ionic capital. Its different members are figured in
minutes ; and it is believed that these details will be clearly under-
stood, without further explanation.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
PLATE XVIII.
Before selecting and arranging the members, of which the
example here exhibited is composed, the few remaining examples
in Greece, and many fine ones in Rome, and also the drawings of
this order by the most celebrated modern architects, were carefully
and critically examined, with a view to select from them such of
their details as were supi)osed to be best adapted to the composition
of the order.
In the shaft of the column, less deviation is observed in the exam-
ples above alluded to, than in any other of its members. When
the periphery of the shaft was divided into flutes and fillets, twenty-
four of each was the constant number employed. In its altitude,
greater deviation was visible. Vitruvius makes the shaft, excluding
the capital, just equal to that of the Ionic. It however was some-
times made ten diameters in altitude, though it generally fell short
of that height. In the capital, great deviations are also visible.
Vitruvius limits its height to one diameter of the column ; but it is in
the best examples about seventy minutes, and this height is gene-
60 THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
rally adopted in modern practice. In some of the ancient examples
of this capital, the angles of the abacus extend beyond the volute,
and terminate in an acute angle. This practice is not, however,
mentioned here as being worthy of our imitation, but to be avoided.
In the details of the sculpture of this capital, there does not appear
to be any two examples which are exactly alike. It is therefore
reasonable to suppose that the architects, after having arranged the
general proportions, exercised their own fancy and judgment in
filling up the smaller and less important parts. The capital here
exhibited is in imitation, with some few triflinsi: deviations, of that
beautiful one left us by Andrew Palladio. Its fine graceful form,
and the chasteness of its sculpture, render it most worthy of our
imitation. The base is that known by the name of the attic base.
When it has been rejected in this order, its substitute has generally
been composed of a great variety and profusion of mouldings, many
of which nmst consequently be small, and the effect of course
confused and unstable. It is believed that the attic base, as here
exhibited, approaches nearer to perfection than any other ; for in
the mouldings of which it is composed, a peculiar fitness one to the
other is observable, whether they be viewed in relation to their size
or shape, which could hardly be found in any different form.
The entablature is two diameters and eight minutes in height,
and similar to that of many others, though not an exact imitation of
any one. The architrave is forty minutes in height, and divided
into three fasciae of nearly equal height. The first and second are
divided by a rectangular projection, and the second and third by a
bead. It is capped by a compound moulding, consisting of the
echinus, with a bead below and a fillet above it.
The frieze is thirty-six minutes in height, and is left plain ; but it
was profusely ornamented in many of the ancient examples, the
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THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. ©I
character of which uniformly partook of that of the structure which
they served to adorn.
The cornice is fifty-two minutes in height. Many difficulties
must be encountered in composing and adjusting its members, caus-
ed principally by the great height and bulk of the bed-mould, when
compared with those of the corona and crown moulding. Every
cornice is divided into three parts : viz. the corona, which is the
centre and principal member, and to which the other two are only
subservient ; the bed-mould, which is to support and strengthen the
corona ; and the crown moulding, which is to fortify and defend it
from falling water. It is therefore wise to reduce the altitude of
the bed-mould, as much as possible, without lessening too much the
height of the mouldings therein contained, and to add so much to
the height of the corona as to place it in its proper and honorable
station as principal ; and also to give so much height to the crown
moulding, that it will appear sufficiently strong to fortify, strengthen
and shelter its principal, the corona, without projecting so much as
to cause the appearance of weakness and instability.
PLATE XIX.
This plate at A exhibits a plan of the capital inverted, showing
the section of the flutes on the shaft of the column, and also a sec-
tion of the leaves and stalks, and their projections from the body of
the capital. The lower extremity of the projections of the leaves
of the volutes and abacus is also shown. The circular outlines of
the plan of the difTerent faces to the abacus are drawn with a radius
equal to the chord line of the whole extremity of the circle.
B exhibits a front elevation, on which the breadth and height of
the leaves, volutes and abacus are clearly represented. C exhibits
16
62 THE COMPOSITE ORDER.
a section on which the heights and projections of the leaves, scrolls
and abacus are figured in minutes.
PLATE XX.
This plate exhibits all the members of which the entablature is
composed, together with the base. They are all drawn to a large
scale, and figured in minutes. In the cornice, is a front and side
view of the modillion, and also its under surface, showing the par-
ticular form and outline of each of them.
THE COMPOSITE OIIDER
PLATE XXI.
It has before been stated that this order is not now in public
favor ; nor does it appear to have been held in much estimation
since the days of the Roman emperors. It nevertheless has had a
place assigned to it in all, or nearly all, the practical books on
architecture for the last century. This order was employed by the
Romans in their triumphal arches, and in other similar structures.
It was ornamented in the most profuse manner ; every member,
where propriety did not forbid it, being covered with the most costly
and beautiful ornaments. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose
that it could not have been viewed with that impartiality with which
it would have been, if dressed in plain attire ; in which case the eye
would, at a glance, comprehend the whole outline of the order, and
THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 63
immediately decide on its merits, instead of being, as it in fact was,
so fascinated in viewing the great profusion of the most costly and
elegant enrichments, as to overlook the general outline of the com-
position. Believing these views to be correct, and' that this order
ought either to be left out, or in some way to be revised and
modernized, I have been induced to examine in the most critical
manner all the examples in my possession ; and the result has been
a determination to try my skill on its reform. How well I have
succeeded, it is not my part to decide. Had it been one of the
established orders, I should have shrunk from the task ; but as this
composition is denied the name and rank of an order by many of
our most eminent modern architects, it is thought to be a fit subject
to work upon. The shaft of the column does not require any
alteration from that found in the ancient examples of this order, it
being there a close imitation of the Corinthian shaft, as described
in the explanation of that order.
The base of the column has been left off, because it was generally
the same in character and effect as that which adorned the Corin-
thian column. The one here substituted is in the Grecian style,
inasmuch as the upper torus is fluted, in imitation of many of the
best examples of Grecian bases ; and the lower torus terminates,
and is supposed to stand, on a step without an intervening plinth.
The lower Corinthian part of the capital is in exact imitation of
that found on the arch of Septimus Severus at Rome : but in the
upper, or Ionic part, there are many deviations ; such as the drop-
ping of the echinus and bead lower down, the effect of which is to
reduce the plain, naked and awkward space, left between those
mouldings and the termination of the long leaves, and to make a
union between the upper and lower parts of the capital, so as to
give it the appearance of one piece of composition. Before this
64 THE COiVIPOSITE ORDER.
deviation took place, there was a complete separation between the
upper and lower parts of the capital.
Again, in each face of the upper part of the capital, the stiff
awkward form of the Roman Ionic capital has given place to the
graceful Grecian. The latter change cannot fail to be approved
by all those who are judges of this art.
In the cornice, the modillion, which generally made one pretty
large member of the bed-mould, has been left olF, and a dentil sub-
stituted in its place. In this procedure, the cornice of the example,
from which the leaves of the capital were taken, has been imitated ;
but in no other respect can I claim protection for that, or any other
example of that order.
I have endeavored to give to this composition a more systematic
arrangement, than that which it has heretofore possessed. It has
already been stated, in describing the origin of this order, that it
was borrowed from the Corinthian and Ionic ; that, from the upper
extremity of the long leaves, down to the termination of the base, it
was Corinthian ; that the upper part of the capital was Ionic, and
the entablature a mixture of both orders.
The only difference in expense, between this composition and the
Ionic, is, then, that of the leaves, which form the lower part of the
capital. As now modernized and reformed, it will probably in
many situations be found worthy of imitation.
PLATE XXII.
On this plate are the base, the architrave, and the cornice, all
carefully drawn on a large scale and figured in minutes.
The volute of this capital is much smaller than that of the Ionic ;
and it therefore became necessary to give a rule for describing the
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PEDESTALS. 65
outline of one adapted to this example. The vertical height of the
volute is twenty-eight and one half minutes, and its breadth twenty-
four and three fourth minutes. The eye is six minutes in diameter;
and the square within the eye, where are to be seen all the centres
on which the outline is described, is two minutes in height and one
in breadth. In all the other particulars, the directions given for
drawing the Ionic volute will apply here.
PLATE XXIII.
On this plate is exhibited an inverted plan of the Composite capi-
tal, and also a front elevation and section of it. Care has been
taken with the drawings that they should be correct, and their
different members be figured in minutes.
PEDESTALS
Pedestals have been considered and treated as a part of an
order by most of the authors who have published practical books
on this subject, from Palladio down to the ])resent time. They
seem properly to belong to the Roman system of the orders ; for,
in that practice, the columns, whicli served to support and adorn the
superb Roman temples, were based on a continued pedestal, which
extended a sufficient distance front of each portico to permit the
steps ascending into the temple to terminate against its sides.
In those cases, the floor of the portico was in the same plane with
17
66 PEDESTALS.
the upper extremity of the pedestal. Nor was this the only situa-
tion in which the Romans employed pedestals. They were used
by them in the second and third orders, when placed one over the
other, as in the Coliseum, the Theatre of Marcellus, &c. The
pedestal was also employed in their triumphal arches, and in several
other places. It seems, indeed, to have been quite a favorite with
that renowned people ; whence those architects who, having never
seen the Grecian antiquities, had drawn their information from those
of Rome, naturally imitated the Roman practice by adapting the
pedestal to their times and circumstances.
But those who have lived in later times, and had the advantage
of studying, not only the antiquities of Rome, but also those of
Greece, have very generally adopted the Grecian practice, in which
but few pedestals are found. The columns which adorned their
magnificent temples, always stood upon the uppermost of three
steps, which extended all around the buildings, each step being in
height proportioned to the size of the building, and not, as in com-
mon stairs, to the human step. There is not, I believe, a single
instance, where the Greeks employed columns over colunms on the
exterior of any of their temples. They, therefore, had no use for
pedestals. There are, however, a very few instances in which
pedestals were employed ; such as in the Choragic Monument of
Lysicrates at Athens, and also at one wing of the Erictheas, &c. :
but these instances were innovations, which took place subsequently
to the loss of Grecian independence.
It cannot, therefore, be supposed that the pedestal will be held
in very high estimation by those who adopt the Grecian system
of the orders. Nevertheless, there will arise, in practice, situa-
tions where the pedestal will be not only proper, but absolutely
necessary.
IPJEIBIESTr.iUL, MOiriLHBJI'K'CBS,
/'/. IV
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30
PEDESTALS. 67
The proportion of the pedestal to the order which it supports, has
not been determined. Sir WiUiam Chambers proposes three tenths
of the height of the order for that of the pedestal. He then divides
the height of the pedestal into nine parts ; one of which he gives to
the cornice, two to the base, and six to the dye. It is, however,
generally admitted, that no determinate rule can be given, which
will suit all situations where the pedestal may be required. It must,
therefore, be left to him who sees and knows all the circumstances
of the case, to give to it such a proportion as seems to him best
suited to the occasion.
When pedestals are employed in balustrades over an order of
columns, the dye should be, in breadth, equal to the thickness of the
column at its neck ; and in height, equal to that of the entablature
on which it stands. A pedestal should be placed exactly over each
column and pilaster in the facade. The plinth of the pedestal must
be placed vertically over the frieze of the entablature.
When pedestals are employed for the support of columns, the
breadth of the dye must be equal to the diameter of the base of the
column ; and the height, generally from two diameters fifteen min-
utes to two diameters forty-five minutes.
PLATE XXIV.
On this plate are examples of the bases and cornices to four
different pedestals. Care has been taken, in selecting their details,
that they should harmonize with the orders with which they are
respectively associated. The base and cornice, selected for the
Ionic order, are in imitation of fragments of ornamented mouldings
found in the area of the Temple of Rhamnus ; and those for the
68 INTERCOLUMNIATIONS.
Corinthian order, of the base and cornice of a tomb found at Car-
puseli, in Asia Minor. Both examples are singularly beautiful in
arrangement and effect.
INTERCOLUMNIATIONS.
INTERCOLUMNIATIONS form a great and distinguished division
amonof the elements of Architecture. In this division are comprised
the various modes of adjusting the distances between columns,
determined by laws founded on reason, and looking to strength and
beauty. Thus the distances of columns from each other are not
determined by chance, nor by the caprice of one ignorant of this
art ; but according to the rules of proportion, guided by knowledge,
discretion, and a refined taste.
Porticoes, or colonnades, among the ancients were classed under
the following names, or styles.
The first style is called Pycnostyle, or columns thickly set ; and
the distance from one column to another in this style is one
diameter and a half The second style is called Systyle ; and the
distance between the columns is two diameters. The third style is
called Diastyle; and the distance between the columns is three
diameters. The fourth style is called Ara;ostyle ; and the columns
are four diameters from each other. The fifth and last style is
called Eustyle ; and the columns are tw-o and one quarter diameters
distant from each other. The latter style is said by Vitruvius to be
the most pleasing of them all for general use. Besides these styles
INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 69
of intercolumniations, porticoes likewise take their names from the
number of cokuiins of which they are composed. Having four
cokimns, they are called Tetrastyle ; six columns, Hexastyle ; eight
cohnnns, Octastyle ; and ten columns, Decastyle.
Among the ancients, the distribution of the columns of their splen-
did temples was governed by rules, which were at once easy of
application and sure of accomplishing the desired effect ; for, the
size and relative position of the columns being first determined, the
building of which they made a part was then in most respects made
subservient to it. Thus it appears, that, after the extent of the
front, the number of columns to be employed, and the order to be
imitated, had been determined, the whole of the extent of the front
was divided into a number of equal parts, depending on the order
and number of columns to be employed, and then one or more of
those parts, according to the intended intercolumniation, taken for
the diameter of the column. The height of the column and that
of the entablature resting upon it, were settled according to the
order to which they belonged. Thus the facade of the building was
formed according to the most rigid rules. The extent of its depth
was determined by making the number of columns in the flank
equal to one more than twice the number of those in front, counting
the angular ones on both front and flank. So much for the practice
of the ancients, which was easy and direct. But however much we
may desire to imitate this practice, we seldom or never can have
that pleasure. Our buildings, whether large or small, one, two,
three, or four stories in height, generally have their several apart-
ments conveniently and economically distributed, and provided with
a sufficient quantity of light, admitted by one, two, or more windows,
of a suitable size for that purpose. These circumstances, to the
architect desirous of following as much as possible the ancient rules,
18
70 FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES.
are jarring elements ; and he finds it a serious business so to adjust
them with the proportions and distance of the columns, as to pro-
duce a perfect harmony throughout the whole composition.
It sometimes happens that one order of columns is employed over
another. When they are so employed, the stronger should be made
to support the weaker ; that is to say, the Tuscan order should
support the Doric, and the Doric the Ionic, and so on. Stability
also requires that the axis of the upper and lower columns should
be in one vertical line. The diameter at the base of the upper col-
umn should be equal to the diameter of the lower one at its neck.
FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES
In some specimens of this important portion of architecture,
one frequently discovers a strange fancy, exhibited in the unmean-
in(T cuttings, carvings and twistings of the details, and their frequent
breaks over columns, pilasters, tablets, &c., which renders their
appearance quite ridiculous to a well-tutored eye. We frequently
see a failure, likewise, in the general proportion of their outlines ;
such as a disproportionate quantity of glass over and at the sides of
the door. It should be remembered that the door is the principal,
and the windows are subordinate. The side and fan lights should
not, therefore, occupy a larger space than is necessary to admit a
sufficient quantity of light into the entry ; and where a door is ac-
companied by side lights, and a fan light extending over both door
and side lights, the outline of its upper extremity should be a seg-
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ment of a circle, and not a straight line. In the latter case, the
distance from the upper extremity of the division which separates
the door from the fan lights to its top edge, will be so great as to
produce the appearance of instability ; which appearance, by the
use of a curved line bounded by an arch, is wholly avoided. But
where the fan light extends over the door only, a straight line, for
its upper extremity, is preferable to any other.
In adjusting columns, pilasters, architraves, &c. to this species of
architecture, nothing will direct the judgment of the student so unerr-
ingly as the often-repeated maxim of proportioning the means to
the end. Let him therefore bear in mind the extent, situation and
character of the building, of which his frontispiece or portico is to
make a part, together with the size and decorations of all their
elements, as well as the burden which the columns or pilasters to be
employed have really or apparently to sustain ; and, if he possesses
a good knowledge of the art, the result of his labors will probably
be successful.
PLATE XXV.
The example of a frontispiece exhibited here, is suitably con-
structed for the front of a house of pretty large dimensions. The
door is divided in the centre by a vertical line, one half of which
will be sufficiently large for the ingress and egress of one person.
The advantage gained by this practice is very important in boiste-
rous situations, as it will admit but one half as much cold air when
opened, as it would were the whole door opened at once.
This example, together with the preceding ones, are drawn from
a scale of one 4ialf of an inch to one foot. All their details can,
therefore, be accurately measured. This door is four feet two
72 FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES.
inches in width, and eight feet in height. The width of the narrow
rails is four inches and five eigiiths. That of the bottom rail is
nine inches, and that of the middle one seven and three fourth
inches. The height of the lower panel is twelve inches ; of the
small middle one, seven and one half inches ; and of the upper or
frieze panel, nine inches.
A exhibits sections of a part of the style and panel of the door,
and of the mouldings, drawn one half of the full size. B exhibits
an example for a tablet, decorated with sculpture, which may be
substituted for that in the elevation, when a more ornamented one
is desired. The tablet is drawn from a scale of one inch to a foot,
m and n represent the fillets which butt against the tablets. They
continue round and form the fret. C exhibits a section of the
pilasters, as they are connected with the door and wall of the build-
ino-, drawn from a scale of one fourth of an inch to one foot, d and
d show the sections of both front and side of the pilaster. To pro-
portion the mouldings to the pilaster, divide the breadth, which is
here nine inches, into twelve equal parts ; make the bead equal to
one part ; each of the fillets to one and three quarters ; the deep
recesses or fillets between the ellipsis and fillets, each equal to one
half, and the ellipsis to five and one half parts, s represents a small
portion of the section of the door, where it shuts into the rabate.
D exhibits a section of the threshold ; «•, the front line of the plinth
on which the pilaster rests ; /, a vertical section of the lower extre-
mity of the door, extending nearly half of its thickness front of the
rabate on the threshold ; and i j, a channel on the under surface
of the door, which is intended to prevent the rain, when forced by
the wind against the door, from being driven between the door and
threshold into the house. When this precaution is attended to, the
rain will fall off on its arrival at i, down to the threshold, and descend
to the steps.
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FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 73
E shows a plan of the steps and threshold, and also a part of the
wall on each side of the door. The elevation of these steps is not
here represented. Their width is twelve, and their rise eight inches.
The upper surface of the top step is in the same plane with that of
the buttresses, which are represented at a and a. The buttresses
will be three feet in length, two in height, and one foot thick. The
distance between them will be equal to the united lengths of the
threshold and the plinths.
PLATE XXVI.
The plan and elevation of the frontispiece here exhibited is suita-
ble for a house of moderate size, or where the story is not suffi-
ciently high to admit a fan light over it, or when a fan light is not
desired. The frame of the door and side lights are recessed into
the house seven inches. All the details of this example are figured in
feet and inches. The tablet and the spaces between the side lights
and the threshold are decorated with diamond panels. A represents
the tablet, drawn on a scale of one and a half inch to one foot ; C,
a side view ; D, the front elevation ; E, the upper surface of the
buttress, against which the ends of the steps terminate ; and C
exhibits a section of the threshold.
On Plate XXVII. are exhibited some of the working plans, drawn
one quarter of the full size. A and G on fig. 1 represent a section,
and A on fig. 2 an elevation, of the large pilaster ; B and D on fig.
1 the sections, and D and D on fig. 2 the elevations, of the small
pilasters. C on fig. 1 represents the section, and C on fig. 2 the
elevation, of the diamond panel. I on fig. 1 represents the section,
19
74 • FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES.
and I on fig. 2 the elevation, of the plinth on which the pilaster rests ;
H on fig. 1 the upper surface, and H on fig. 2 the front view, of the
threshold. J shows a front view of a small portion of the threshold,
which extends under the door and is moulded on the front.
PLATE XXVIII.
The example of a frontispiece here exhibited shows a fan light
extending over the door and side lights, its upper edge bounded by
a segment of a circle. The spandrels made by this curve, and by
the angles of the pilaster and cap, are decorated by a plain honey-
suckle, the dimensions of which in practice will be so large that
they may be wrought by a carpenter when a carver is not at hand.
The tablet and panels under the side lights are likewise decorated
with sculpture ; but should this be thought too expensive, plain panels
may be substituted. A exhibits a side view of the pilaster and a
section of the cap ; B, a section of the steps and a part of the side
elevation of the buttress ; C, the tablet, drawn from a scale of one
inch to a foot ; and D, the plan of the buttress, steps and threshold,
and also sections of the pilasters, plinths, &c. As all the essential'
parts of this example are figured in feet and inches, and as the
explanation of the foregoing plates was so full, no further explana-
tion will be required here.
PLATE XXIX.
The example of a frontispiece on this plate, is, in its door, side,
and fan light, similar to the one last described, but differs very
widely from that in its other decorations. The pilasters and enta-
blature, in their proportions and the outline of their mouldings, are
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FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES. 75
in imitation of the column and entablature on Plate VII., with the
exception of the capital to the pilaster, which is taken from the
Doric antae capital. The panels which decorate the lower part of
the door, and those under the side lights, are intended to be diamond
panels. In other words, the panel is intended to project forwards
in the centre to a right line with the stiles and rails, and from that
point to incline on a straight line, and on each of its four sides, to
the thickness of the other panels, at its termination against the
groove which separates it from the mouldings. A exhibits a plan
of the steps, showing the sections of the pilasters and the upper
surface of the buttress.
l^ shows a section of one half of a pilaster, drawn to a scale of
one quarter of the full size.
The sculpture which crowns the entablature, if thought to be too
rich or too expensive, may be left off without affecting the symme-
try of the composition.
PLATE XXX.
The example of an Ionic portico exhibited on this i)late, is in its
general proportions, and the outline of its details, in imitation of the
example of that order as represented on Plate XIV.
A similarity may be remarked in the size and construction of the
doors and side lights of this and of all the preceding examples.
This sameness I do not strive to avoid, from the belief that a ereat
variety in the size and construction of these essential but subordi-
nate portions of architecture, is not required by a correct taste, nor
adapted to the place they occupy.
;^
76 FRONTISPIECES AND PORTICOES.
If decorations arc desired on these windows, let them be made
with a sparing hand, on stained glass, and of a proper size and
figure ; for the student must remember that it is a maxim in archi-
tecture, that the ornament must be made for the place, and not the
place for the ornament. A practice has heretofore prevailed among
designers and makers of side and fan lights, and is not yet quite
extinct, of exerting their ingenuity in the contrivance of a great
variety of crooked, winding outlines, which they applied to the for-
mation of the internal divisions of these sashes ; and their imagina-
tion was again taxed in contriving a great profusion of rosettes,
stars, beads, &c. After the elements had thus been adjusted upon
the sash bars, their surface was often adorned with gold leaf.
These eorn-eous windows are often seen in dwelling-houses of ex-
ceedingly plain exterior, and present a contrast quite ridiculous to
a well-tutored eye. The sculpture over each side light should not
project beyond the frame which encloses it. A exhibits a section
of the pilaster which separates the door from the side light ; C, a
part of a section of the sash and bead ; B, a part of that of the stile
of the door ; and D, a section of the mouldings, and a part of the
stile and panel to the door. These sections are drawn one half of
the full size.
PLATE XXXI.
A exhibits a plan of the steps, buttresses, columns and pilasters
to the Ionic portico represented on the preceding plate ; B, the under
surface of the architrave ; C, that of the panel enclosed by the ar-
chitrave B, and recessed up just the width of the architrave ; D, the
moulding of the panel, one half of the full size.
2>®iE.?r3;©®s
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1\
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES. 77
PLATE XXXII.
This plate exhibits an example of a Composite Portico, having
four columns in front. The proportions are in imitation of the
example of that order as shown on Plate XXI.
Its character is rich, and its size sufficient for a building of large
dimensions ; nor can it indeed with propriety be employed on a
small buildin«T. It is surmounted with a railing intended to be made
of cast iron, which may or may not be employed, as taste or con-
venience may dictate.
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES
Cornices have heretofore been pretty fully treated of, as a distin-
guished member of each order. They nevertheless require further
notice, as employed separate and distinct from the orders ; as they
necessarily will be in various and important situations, such as the
crowning and finishing under the eaves of all kinds of buildings,
and in many other external situations. It is highly important that
when so employed, they should conform to the character of the
building which they decorate. Cornices are also used in various
internal situations ; such as in rooms, halls, staircases, &c. When
so employed, they are generally made of stucco. But wherever
used, they will be considered subordinate, and must therefore be in
keeping with the rest of the apartment.
20
78 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES.
Some architects have attempted to determine the size of a cornice,
by making its virtual height equal to a certain portion of the whole
height of the building, from its base to the upper termination of the
cornice. But these attempts have not been, and in fact cannot be,
carried into universal practice ; for buildings of equal heights may
have such different situations as to require cornices of unequal sizes.
We will suppose, for instance, two buildings, one measuring twenty-
five feet in front and the same number of feet in height, and the other
the same in height but fifty feet in front. It is plain that the doors,
and windows, with their decorations, of the latter building, require
to be somewhat larger than those of the former one. Of course the
cornice of the latter must have a proportionate increase in size.
We may, however, assist our judgment by the above rule. Divide,
for instance, the altitude of the last-mentioned building into twenty
equal parts. One of these parts will be fifteen inches, which will be
a suitable height for the cornice of that building. But for the cor-
nice of the first building, take one twenty-third of its height, or
thirteen inches. Suppose each of the above described buildings
extended to the height of forty feet. In that case, one thirtieth part
of the height of the last, or sixteen inches, and one thirty-third of
the first, or fourteen and one half inches, would be a size suitable
for their respective cornices.
Internal cornices, as for rooms, staircases, and the like, differ in
their construction very considerably from those already described.
Their height is generally much less in proportion, and their projec-
tion much greater. This practice is both convenient and natural ;
because the cornice cannot be viewed at any great distance, and
its height being only observed at such a short distance that the spec-
tator is obliged to look up from under its projection, its front is
never fairly seen. In low rooms, where the space from the upper
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES. 79
termination of the architrave to the window and the under surface
of the ceihng is very small, it is sometimes expedient to confine the
height of the cornice to a space not exceeding two inches ; and in
this case it will be wise to increase its projection, so that its height
and projection together shall be about equal to what they would
have been if this expedient had not been resorted to. This great
difference between the height and projection might at first thought
be considered disagreeable ; it is, however, adapted to the peculiar
situation of such a cornice, and much more pleasing than the usual
proportion would be.
In adjusting the proportions of these cornices, the size and height
of the rooms should be taken into consideration. If the ceiling be
hi^h and the other dimensions of the room small, the difference
between the height and projection of the cornice should not be very
great ; because in that case a large projection would reduce the
size of the ceiling, and the whole room would appear smaller. But
if the room be of large dimensions, and the ceiling high, the projec-
tion of the cornice may then be considerably more than its height.
There is less difficulty in determining the size of these cornices by
fixed rules, than of those employed externally ; because the differ-
ence in the heights of rooms where cornices are used, is not very
great. A room less in height than ten feet is not often decorated
with a cornice ; and it is not common to see a room more than
fourteen feet in height. A method of adjusting the proportion of
cornices to rooms, which gives much satisfaction, may be obtained
by making the joint extent of the height and projection in inches
equal to the height of the room in feet.
go EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CORNICES.
PLATE XXXIII.
This plate exhibits four examples of cornices for external finish-
ing. A has a sloping plancer, which is decorated with three
elliptical flutes, terminating at the angles of the cornice against the
fillets of the panel «, which is recessed up into the plancer and
decorated with a rosette.
B has also a sloping plancer ; and it is decorated with three
channels, or grooves, which terminate at the angles in the form of
a fret, h shows a panel recessed up into the plancer, and decorated
with a honeysuckle,
C exhibits an elhpsis recessed up into a reverse curve in the
plancer. The inverted plan of the plancer shows the finish at the
angles, a shows a panel, and h the ellipsis.
D exhibits an example of a plain bold cornice, which will produce
a pleasing effect in practice. On Plate XXXIV. are exhibited
four examples of cornices, which do not seem to require any other
explanation than an examination of the plate will give.
On Plate XXXV. are exhibited four, and on Plate XXXVI.
three diflerent examples of cornices suitable for internal finishing.
A rule for determining their size has already been described, which
gives for each foot in the height of the room, one inch to the height
and projection of the cornice. We will suppose in practice a room
ten feet in aUitude, and the cornice M, on Plate XXXVI. to be
selected for use. That cornice is forty-five parts in height, and
projects sixty-four parts, which added together make one hundred
and nine parts. Ten inches, or one inch to each foot in the height of
the room, must therefore be divided into one hundred and nine equal
parts. Then each member of the cornice, both in height and pro-
jection, is equal to as many of those parts as are figured thereon.
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CENTRE-PIECES. 81
The height of the cornice is taken from a down to h. The orna-
mental part below h may with propriety be considered as a part of
the frieze.
CENTRE-PIECES.
PLATE XXXVII.
In parlors and other apartments from whose ceilings a lamp is to
be suspended, the decoration encircling the hook from which the
lamp is suspended is called a centre-piece. I do not know of any
precise rule by which the proportions of the centre-piece can be
ascertained. In a room of about eighteen by twenty feet, the diame-
ter of the centre-piece should be about three feet, or one sixth pf
the width of the room, exclusive of the architrave which encircles
it. Although this cannot be taken as a general rule, it will never-
theless assist the judgment in adjusting the proportion. Three
different examples are exhibited here, and two examples for the
mouldings which encircle them. These mouldings are drawn one
half of the full size. A and A show the depth to which the flowers
are recessed up into the ceiling.
21
82
ARCHITRAVES
No one of the elements of Architecture is more frequently em-
ployed, or of much more importance, than the architrave. Doors,
windows, niches, &c. are all more or less indebted to the architrave
for their principal decoration. It is therefore of importance that
the construction of this element should be as perfect as possible, in
relation to its size, symmetry, economy, and adaptation to its place.
The mouldings which decorate its face should be few, bold, and
expressive.
The breadth has generally been determined by a given portion of
the breadth of the door, window, &-c. of the room where this ele-
ment is employed. But this rule will not always apply ; since the
breadths of the door and the window in the same room are not
equal, and sliding doors, when employed to connect the two parlors,
are generally something more than twice the breadth of the other
doors of the room. The door to a room of common dimensions,
say sixteen by eighteen or twenty feet, and ten feet in height, will
be about three feet in breadth and seven in height. One sixth part
of three feet will be six inches, which would be a proper breadth
for the architrave, if there were no other circumstances in the case.
But the windows in the same room would be about four feet in
breadth. One sixth of four feet is eight inches, which would be too
much for the breadth of the architrave, as would likewise a medium
between the two. Judgment, improved by practice, must therefore
settle this question. The proper breadth in this case would probably
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DOORS AND THEIR DECORATIONS. 83
be about six and three fourth inches, except in the case of a sliding
door, which would increase the breadth to seven or seven and one
fourth inches.
PLATE XXXVIII.
This plate presents twelve examples of architraves, of different
construction and width. They are drawn one half of the full size.
The members are figured in such a manner, that if drawn by a
common two foot rule, calling each number figured on the plate
one eighth of an inch, an architrave will be produced of just double
the size of the one imitated.
DOORS AND THEIR DECORATIONS
No department in any building can be complete, without one
or more of tliese useful and ornamental portions of Architecture.
Their beauty or deformity depends on their construction and adap-
tation to their place. To arrange the size and proportions of his
doors, the mechanic must resort to his own judgment, which, though
not assisted here by any precise or definite rule, will by a course of
attentive practice soon acquire sure and infallible guides.
A door cannot be useful, unless it be of sufficient size for persons
of full stature to pass and repass freely, without stooping or pass-
ing sideways. Two feet two inches in breadth, and six feet four
inches in height, is therefore the smallest size. No internal door
84 DOORS AND THEIR DECORATIONS.
should be more than four feet in breadth, and about eight and one
half feet in height, be the room ever so large. If a greater breadth
is desired, make the door in two parts.
If a room be fifteen by eighteen feet, and ten in height, three feet
in breadth and seven in height will be a good proportion for the
door ; but if the size of the room be increased to eighteen by twenty
feet, and twelve in height, three feet two inches in breadth and
seven feet six inches in height will be a suitable proportion.
Folding or sliding doors are frequently employed to connect the
two parlors ; in which case it will be proper to increase their alti-
tude above that of the other^doors of the same room, about one foot ;
and as they are made in two parts, divided vertically, each part
should be somewhat broader than the other doors.
PLATE XXXIX.
This plate exhibits a design for an eight panel door, and a pair
of sliding doors, suitably constructed for the same apartment. They
are decorated with their usual ornament, the architrave, showing
the termination against the block at the upper angles of the door.
This block should project about one eighth of an inch beyond the
outer edcre and front of the architrave. A shows the tablet and the
block at the angles, with the sculpture recessed into both. This
kind of sculpture should not project much beyond the frame that
contains it.
This example is drawn from a scale of one half of an inch to a
foot. B exhibits another example for the finish over sliding doors,
drawn from the same scale as A ; and C, a section of the moulding
one half of the full size. The doors with their details are figured
in feet and inches.
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WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 85
PLATE XL. .
The example of a pair of sliding doors here exhibited, decorated
with pilasters and an entablature, as a substitute for the finish of
those on the preceding plate, is not in bad taste ; nor will it inter-
rupt the harmonious proportion of the apartment, by means of its
decorations. These doors difler from the other doors and windows
in their magnitude, situation, and construction.
Two other examples of doors with their decorations are also
exhibited here.
WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES
No room or apartment can be useful, of course, unless it is capa-
ble of receiving a suitable quantity of that necessary article light.
The windows, therefore, constitute a very important part of the
room. No determinate rule can be given, by which the size of the
windows can be adjusted with regard to a due admission of hght.
The other circumstances to be considered in their arrangement and
formation, embrace the height and extent of the building, the num-
ber and dimensions of the interior apartments, the number of the
windows, and in fact the general styl6 and character of the building
throughout. Stability requires that the windows should not be placed
too near the angles of the building, and that the piers between them
should be nearly equal in size.
22
86 WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES.
Practice seems to have fixed the altitude of the first story win-
dows to twice their breadth ; of those in the second story, to some-
thing less ; and those in the third story, still less.
A suitable proportion for the windows of a parlor of twenty by
eighteen feet, and twelve feet in altitude, is two windows, each
containing twelve lights of glass of twelve by nineteen inches.
The second story would require the same number of lights of
glass, and of the same width, but seventeen inches in length. In
the third story, the length of the glass should be fifteen inches.
In parlors and drawing rooms it is a common practice to add to
the length of the windows by extending tliem down within about
seven inches of the floor ; and in that case, to divide the height into
two casements, the lower one containing three lights of glass in
height, and the upper one two.
Venetian windows are sometimes employed in rooms and other
apartments, and in some instances properly ; but these instances
rarely occur. It is advisable to avoid their use, if possible ; because
they are seldom made to harmonize with the other portions of
architecture by which they are surrounded, and it is exceedingly
difficult to accommodate them with either shutters or blinds, without
sacrificing some other convenience. The centre window may be in
height twice its breadth ; and each side window in breadth not less
than one third, nor more than one half of that of the centre window.
PLATE XLII.
This plate exhibits a vertical section of the sash frame, showing
its cap and sill, the soffit, architrave, and grounds, and their con-
nection with each other ; also the back, and its connection with the
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WINDOWS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 87
plinth and sill of the frame. It gives likewise an elevation of the
sash from the upper extremity of the shutter, and a part of the brick
work, together with a section of the stone cap and sill, withtheir
details figured in inches. C exhibits a horizontal section of the
sash frame, showing distinctly all its details ; and also the back
lining, grounds, shutters and architrave, with their connections with
each other. These details are drawn one fourth of the full size.
E and F represent sections of a part of a stile and panel, and the
moulding for shutters, drawn one half of the full size.
PLATE XLIII.
A exhibits an interior elevation of a window, clearly showing all
its details placed in their proper position, drawn from a scale of one
half inch to a foot.
B shows an interior elevation of a window differently constructed
from the last. It is supposed to be shuated where a sufficient
quantity of room cannot be spared for folding the shutters into the
wall. In such a case this example makes a very good substitute ;
and where the piers between the windows are large, or when only
one window is situated in the same side of a room, it makes a finish
far from disagreeable.
C exhibits a horizontal section of the sash frame of the shutters,
back lining, jamb casing, grounds and architrave, drawn one fourth
of the full size. E shows the block against which the architrave
finishes at the upper angles of the window, with a turned rosette
in its centre. A section of it, taken through the centre from a to b,
is exhibited at F.
88
BASE MOULDINGS AND THEIR PLINTHS
These important members make a finish at the lowest extremity
of the room. Until recently, they made the lowest member of the
base, dado, and surbase ; but it is fortunate, as it regards economy
and correct taste, that the two latter members have been expunged
from that kind of finish. The base and its plinth, therefore, assume
a more important character than when they constituted only one of
the members of the pedestal, or dado ; and its height must be some-
what increased, and bear some relation to the altitude of the room.
Although the exact size cannot be determined by any given portion
of the room, yet a proper consideration of the altitude and size of
the room will direct the judgment to a correct proportion.
PLATE XLIV.
On this plate are exhibited six different examples of base mould-
ings, including their plinths, drawn one half of the full size for
practice. The height and projection of each member are figured
in parts.
Like the architrave before explained, each one of these parts is
equal to one eighth of an inch. These mouldings will be found
expressive and imposing, though neither of them projects more than
seven eighths of an inch.
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VASES
PLATE XLV.
At a and B, on this plate, are presented two designs for snrbase
mouldings, which are drawn one half of the full size. For the
convenience of enlarging or reducing their size, the members are
figured in parts.
C exhibits an example for a baluster, which is four diameters in
height ; but it may be adapted to any situation, by either increasing
or diminishing its height, as the case may require. Its members
are figured in parts.
D, E, and F, present three examples for vases of different forms
and proportions. It will be wise to imitate carefully the particular
form of their outline. They are suitably constructed for the termi-
nation of pedestals, or posts. The largest diameter of these vases
should not be quite equal to that of the pedestal or post which they
decorate, nor less than three fourths of the same. Each member
is figured in parts, and the proportions are reckoned from the
central line.
23
90
ORNAMENTAL MOULDINGS
PLATE XLVI.
Ornaments are more or less valuable, as they harmonize with
surrounding objects. It is wise and prudent to use them with a
sparing hand ; for their absence from the composition does not
necessarily imply defect, though it might present an appearance too
plain and naked to a good judge. But a work unnecessarily loaded
with ornaments will be disfigured, not embellished, by them. In the
execution of ornaments, the subject intended to be imitated, whether
it be the chestnut, the egg, or the acorn, they being the usual
enrichments of the ovolo, should be so deeply cut into the moulding
as to produce the appearance of their being almost detached from
it. The same observations will equally apply to the berries, or
beads, which are the standing ornament of the astragal.
When ornaments are liable to close inspection, every part should
be well expressed and neatly finished ; but when their situation is
such that they can be seen only at a distance, the nice finish may be
omitted, but their details must be strongly expressed. In sculpture,
a few rough, bold strokes, from a skilful hand, express the subject
intended for imitation more effectually than the most elaborate
unskilful efforts would be able to do.
A presents an example of an ornament suitably formed for flat
surfaces. It is of Grecian origin, and expresses the simple, chaste
character for which all their examples of ornaments are so remark-
CHIMNEY-PIECES. 91
able. B, C, and D, are likewise Grecian. They are suitably con-
structed for mouldings, and if well executed will have a handsome
appearance.
CHIMNEY-PIECES
This portion of Architecture is highly ornamental, when tastefully
constructed. The magnitude of a chimney-piece does not always
correspond with that of the room in which it is situated. A room,
for instance, of fourteen by eighteen feet, requires a fire-place of
three feet in breadth and two feet ten inches in height ; but one of
twenty by twenty-eight feet, does not need a fire-place more than
three feet six inches in breadth and three feet in height. A due
consideration of all the circumstances of the case is therefore
necessary, to give to the chinmey-piece such a size as will best
harmonize with the magnitude and finish of the room.
Columns are often employed in their decoration. This practice
is, however, in small plain rooms, to be avoided ; because the
chimney necessarily projects into the room about one foot, and if
the projection of the columns be added, it will have the effect of
reducing the breadth of the room very considerably, in a place, too,
where the width of the room is of the most importance. Besides,
although a column and its entablature, when of suflicient magnitude,
is one of the most beautiful portions of Architecture, yet it must be
remembered, that when reduced to small dimensions its details are
also proportionably reduced, and their appearance rendered small
92 CHIMNEY-PIECES.
and indistinct, by which means the order loses a great portion of its
beauty. In large apartments, and where the space occupied by the
columns is not important, they may sometimes be employed to ad-
vantage. But it is believed that there are few situations, in common
practice, where pilasters cannot be so constructed as to render
them more appropriate and less expensive than columns.
PLATE XLVII.
This plate presents, at A and B, two examples for chimney-
pieces, suitably constructed for common-sized and plainly-finished
rooms. They are drawn from a scale of three fourths of an inch
to one foot. D exhibits the finish of the .flutes at the upper extremi-
ty of the pilaster, and E a section of the same. F shows an
elevation, and G a section of the block ornament and diamond
panel, drawn one quarter of the full size. H and H represent the
plans and projections of the pilasters, the plinths, and also the
projection of shelf or cornice.
PLATE XLVIII.
Two designs for chimney-pieces are exhibited on this plate, of a
richer character than those last described. They are suitably formed
for rooms of something more than the common size, a presents
the elevation, h the section to the block ornament to A, and c shows
a vertical section of the block ornament to B, taken through the
centre of the fret, e is a section of the fillets of the fret passing from
the block to the tablet, yis a section of the band to the architrave,
and g a section of the frieze, drawn one quarter of the full size.
i and i present sections of the plinths, and also of the cornice.
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STAIRS
Every building consisting of more than one story is indebted to
this portion of Architecture for ornament, as well as utility. The
height, breadth and length of the steps should be proportioned to
the situation and use for which they are constructed. This remark,
however, is subject to this qualification, that the height should never
exceed eight inches, nor the breadth twelve. Every workman is
supposed to have a sufficient knowledge of all kinds of stairs, ex-
cept those on a circular plan. The method most practised, of
forming the circular part of the rail without a cylinder, is compara-
tively of recent date. To the ingenious Peter Nicholson, of Lon-
don, we are all indebted for this method. It was invented by him
and published in the year 1792, and since that time it has wonder-
fully extended itself into practice. In the year 1795 I made the
drawings and superintended the erection of a circular stair-case in
the State House at Hartford, Connecticut ; w;hich, I believe, was
the first circular rail that was ever made in New England. This
rail was glued up around a cylinder in pieces of about one eighth
of an inch thick. Since the first discovery of the true principles of
hand-railing, Mr. Nicholson has made several important improve-
ments; for one of which, about twelve or thirteen years since, the
Society of Arts in London awarded him a gold medal. This im-
provement renders the subject the most simple and direct of any of
his methods. I have therefore adopted it as my model here, with
some trifling deviations.
24
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94 STAIRS.
PLATE XLIX.
This plate exhibits two examples for scrolls, which terminate the
lower extremity of hand-rails ; one of a curtail step, and one of a
newell.
In order to describe the scroll, fig. 1, make a circle of three and
one half inches in diameter, as is shown by dotted lines. To illus-
trate this subject in a clear and distinct manner, the circle is repeat-
ed on a larger scale at No. 2. Divide the circle in the centre by
the horizontal line a o b ; draw the vertical line o e ; divide o e into
three equal parts at c, d, e ; through the point c draw 6 c 5, parallel
to a h. Divide c (/ into three equal parts at f, g, h, and make c 6
equal to o f. Then from the point C, and through the centre o,
draw the diagonal line 6 o 4, and intersect it at right angles by
another diagonal line passing through the centre o, and cutting 6 5
at 5. At right angles with G 5, draw 5 4, cutting 6 o 4 at 4 ; and
parallel with 6 5, draw 4 3, cutting 5 o 3 at 3. Draw 3 2 parallel
to 5 4, cutting 6 o 4 at 2 ; and 2 1 parallel to 6 5, cutting 5 o 3 at 1 ;
which completes the six centres on which the scroll is drawn. We
will now return to fig. 1. On the centre 1, with the radius 1 j,
draw j i ; on the centre 2, with the radius 2 i, draw i h ; on 3, with
the radius 3 h, draw A g ; on 4, with the radius 4 g, draw g f ;
on 5, with the radius 5 f, draw f e ; on G, draw e d; which com-
pletes the outside circle. The inside line, and also those of the
nosing of the steps, are drawn from the same centres.
To draw the face mould, No. 1, the rail is supposed to be glued
to the scroll at the line 8 11. A exhibits the pitchboard ; c h, the
base line ; and a b, the raking line. Divide from d, the beginning
of the twist, to b, into any number of parts, making one intersect
the edge of the rail at 8, and another at 11. Then draw these lines
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STAIRS. 95
across the pitchboard to the raking line a b. At right angles with
a b, continue them across the face mould, No. 1. From the line
a b, make each of the lines 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, and 11, equal to the cor-
responding lines from the line d b to the edge of the rail 3, 5, 7, 9,
10 and 11. Make also 12, 3 4, 5 6, and 7 8, in No. 1, respec-
tively equal to d 2, 3 4, 5 6, and 7 8, on fig. 1. Then through the
points 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, and 11, and also through the points 2, 4, 6,
and 8, trace the curves ; and the face mould is completed.
Fig. 2 exhibits a curtail step drawn from the same centres as
that of the raij. B shows the edge of the riser ; C, a block glued
to both step and riser ; D and E, keys by which the riser is made
fast and drawn home to the step. The dotted lines represent the
nosing of the step.
To draw the falling mould, No. 5, let a, b and c, be the angles of
the pitchboard. Produce the base line c b, to d ; make c d equal
to the stretchout of the scroll on fig. 1 ; from d, around to f, set up
the depth of the rail, which is supposed to be two inches, to the
line f g' e. Then divide a g and g e, each into a like number of
equal parts, and form the curve by the intersection of lines. The
curve of the lower edge may be obtained by gaging.
Fig. 3 exhibits another method of describing a scroll of two
revolutions, the beginning and termination of which are given, a
represents the commencement, and i the termination. Divide i a
into two equal parts at I ; subdivide i I into one more part than the
number of revolutions required, in this case into three parts. Make
the square in the centre equal to one of those parts, and construct
it like that at No. 4, which is drawn on a large scale. Then on 1
in the square, and with the radius i a, draw the quadrant a b. On
2, and with the radius 2 b, describe be; on 3, with the radius
3 c, describe c d ; on 4, describe d e ; on 5, describe e f; on 6,
96 STAIRS.
describe f g. ; on 7, describe g h ; and on 8, describe h i ; which
completes the outside line. That of the inside is drawn by the
same centres.
It is evident by the dotted lines representing the straight part of
the rail aX k I and m, that four scrolls of unequal sizes may be
obtained by this example.
Fig. 4 exhibits an example of a newell, drawn on a large scale
and figured in parts. Its size is supposed to be six inches at the
base. Each part would therefore be equal to one half of an inch.
Where there is not a sufficient space in the entry that can be
conveniently spared, this newell will be found a good substitute for
the scroll.
PLATE L.
To find all the moulds which are necessary for the completion of
a stair rail standing over a circular plan, as exhibited at fig. 1, we
proceed as follows :
Make a b. No. 2, equal to the height of the winders. Draw a e
and bfat right angles with a b ; make e a and bf each equal to the
development of e a, fig. 1 ; draw e x and d k each equal to the height
of one step, and parallel io a b ; make x I and/c? each equal to the
breadth of one step, and join el, e f, andfk. Make e t equal to e I,
and f s equal to f k. Then form the curves, or easolFs, by the
intersecting of lines, or by producing lines at right angles from the
rail, as represented by the dotted lines u and v, until they meet, and
their junction will be the centre for describing the curve. The
breadth of the falling mould is generally about two inches ; a line,
therefore, about one inch above the one here described, and another
at the same distance below, will complete the falling inould.
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STAIRS. 97
Construction of the Face Mould, No. 3.
Let A D E F G H I be the plan of the rail, and E F, G H,
a portion of the straight part ; I being the upper, F the lower, and
D the middle resting points. Make the stretchout of A D equal to
that of D F. In the figure of the falling mould, produce the base
a e io f, a e then being equal to the development of A E ; make
a d equal to the development of A D, and f ^'equal to E F. Draw
f I parallel to o b, and cutting the upper side of the falling mould
at / ; parallel to fa, draw I i, cutting a b at i ; in i I, make i d equal
to I D ; draw d m parallel to a b, cutting the upper side of the fall-
ing mould at m ; draw m n parallel to f a, cutting a b nX n ; and
d r 'parallel to a b, cutting m n at r. Join o r, and produce it to
meet i I at q ; make I Q, equal to i q ; join F Q, and produce F Q,
to K. Through G draw K L perpendicular to K Q ; through I
draw I Z parallel to K Q,, cutting K L at Z ; make Z Z equal to
a o, and join K Z. Then produce K Z to L, and draw ALL
parallel to Z Z.
To find the Face Mould.
Draw L A perpendicular to K L ; make L A equal to L A,
Z I equal to Z I, and join A I. Then A I will form the part of#
the face mould represented by I A on the plan. Draw K F per-
pendicular to K L, and make K F equal to K F. Draw G G
parallel to Z Z, cutting K L at G, and join G F. Again draw H U
parallel to Z Z, and cutting K L at U ; draw U H perpendicular
to K L, and make U H equal to U H. Draw H E parallel to G F,
and F E parallel to G H ; then E F G H will form the part of the
25^
98 STAIRS.
face mould corresponding to the straight part E F G H on the plan.
The intermediate points of the face mould, which form curves of
the outside and inside of the rail, are thus found. Through any
point C, in the convex side of the plan, draw C Y parallel to Z Z,
cutting K L at Y ; and in the concave side of the plan at T,
draw Y C perpendicular to K L ; and in Y C make Y T equal to
Y T, and Y C equal to Y C. Then T is a point in the concave
side, and C a point in the convex side of the face mould. A suffi-
cient numher of points being thus found, the curved parts of the
face mould may be drawn by hand, or by a slip of wood bent to the
curve. No. 5 exhibits a face mould for the upper half of the
rail, which is constructed in the same manner with the one just
described.
How to apply the Face Mould to the Plank.
Let a h i g, No. 4, be the figure of the face mould, placed in due
position to the pitch line K L, as when traced from the plan. X
represents the upper side, Y the edge, and Z the under side of the
plank, from which the rail is to be taken. Draw g L perpendicular
to the outside of the plank. Make the angle g L K, on the edge
of the plank, equal to the angle K L L, No. 3 ; and the angle g L K,
on the under side of the plank, equal to the angle G Z I, No. 3.
Make g L equal to L K, and draw the chord g i in the plane Z
parallel to the arris line ; and then apply the points g and i of the
face mould to the fine as exhibited in the figure, and draw the form
of the face mould.
Fig. 2 exhibits the section of a hand rail, drawn one half of the
full size. On B, with the radius B A, describe the half circle
CAD, and divide it into three equal parts. Draw B 1 and B 2 ;
CHURCHES. 99
divide A B into four equal parts ; draw 3 i parallel to D C, and
cutting B 2 at i ; draw i I parallel to B 1, and equal to one and one
half of the four divisions between A and B ; on /, with the radius
i 2, describe 2 m ; and on /, with the radius I m, describe m n, and
draw n o.
CHURCHES
The liberality displayed by the members of this community, in
the, ample appropriations which they so frequently make for erect-
ing houses of public worship, is highly creditable to them.
The magnitude and beauty of many of these buildings render
them honorable monuments of public munificence ; and if many of
them likewise exhibit a barrenness of invention and ignorance of
Architecture, this defect is to be ascribed, not to any fault on the
part of those who provide the funds, so much as to the disadvan-
tages under which those labor who are selected to construct the
building. We cannot expect a carpenter to shape an edifice in so
classic and correct a style as one who confines his labors to the
study of Architecture. Let an architect of competent skill be em-
ployed to prepare the draught of the building, together with the
working drawings for the workmen ; and especially, when a plan
has been once determined and begun upon, let it not be in any
important respects departed from, and buildings of the latter class
will soon disappear. AUerations are generally expensive, and are
apt to destroy the symmetry of the building.
100 CHURCHES.
A House erected for the worship of the Supreme Being, should
correspond in character with the reverential feelings of those who
assemble within it. While, therefore, we aim at elegance in the
form of the columns, pilasters, entablatures, ceilings, windows, and
doors, let it be a grave and simple elegance, and not of the gaudy
kind. The details should be free from any unmeaning cuttings or
twistings. Light, gay colors, and all symbols of heathen worship,
should be avoided.
The interior of a church would have a more chaste and correct
appearance, if without galleries. But to the omission of galleries
there are objections. Where the society is large, they cannot all
be seated upon the floor of the building near enough to the speaker
to hear his voice distinctly ; and the increased expense of erecting
a building of sufficient size without galleries, is considerable. It is
but seldom, therefore, that we see a church of any magnitude free
from this encumbrance. It is a practice with some to make only
one tier of windows. This is a very becoming practice so far as
the exterior of the building is concerned ; but in the interior, where
these windows cross the galleries, they present a very awkward
appearance.
The plans, elevations, and other drawings, which I have given in
this example of a church, have been made more for the purpose of
conveving a clear and distinct view of the relation which the several
parts should bear to each other and to the whole, than with an
expectation that they will often be executed in this manner.
Plate LI. gives a plan of the first floor, containing one hundred
and two pews, with their size, and also that of the house, and all its
details, figured in feet and inches. A exhibits a section of the
architrave for the windows ; B, the capping for the pews ; C, a
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CHURCHES. 101
section of the moulding and a part of the stile and panel for the
wainscot of the pews, drawn one half of the full size. D shows a
section of the back of the pews, and of the seat and riser, figured
in feet and inches. E exhibits an example of the pew door, and
the piece of wainscot required to fill in between the doors, also
figured in feet and inches. Each side of the interior of the building
is intended to be decorated with columns and pilasters of the same
order as represented on Plate XIV.
PLATE LII.
Exhibits a plan of the gallery floor, showing the size and number
of the pews. A shows a section of a truss for the support of that
side of the gallery fronting the pulpit ; and B an elevation of the
finish of the front of the gallery, drawn on a scale of one eighth of
an inch to a foot. C shows a section of the mouldino- which is to
enclose the panels of the front of the gallery, drawn one half of the
full size.
Plate LV. shows a plan of the ceiling of the interior of the
house, and also that of the portico, both inverted. The under
surface is intended to appear as if straight ; but to produce that
appearance, it must be gently curved upwards about four inches
above a straight line, a, a, a, and a, show the projection of the
cornice of the entablature. A is an example of the stiles and rails,
and the moulding which is to enclose the panels, figured in feet and
inches.
D shows an example of a sash, which is intended to be glazed
with stained glass, for the admission of light from the roof to the
26
102 CHURCHES.
pulpit. B shows an example of the moulding which is to crown*
the architrave under the ceiling of the portico, figured in minutes ;
and C, the cornice which finishes the upper extremity of the front
of the gallery.
Plate LVI. contains an example of a pulpit. It is drawn from a
scale of one half inch to a foot, and figured in feet and inches. C
exhibits the outline of the mouldings intended to enclose the panels,
drawn one half of the full size ; and D, the cornice which is to
finish the upper extremity of the desk, figured in parts. It is in-
tended to be three and one half inches in height.
Either of the examples of mouldings on Plate XXXVII. may
be imitated in the outline of the face of the pilasters. It is also
intended to finish the vacancy between the blocks at the upper
extremity of each end of the pulpit, over a and a, with the same
outline of moulding.
'a*
" On Plate LIII. is exhibited a front elevation, with the scale of
feet by which it is drawn annexed. D shows a plan, and C an
elevation of the cupola, drawn from a scale of one eighth of an inch
to a foot, figured in feet and inches.
A exhibits an example of the vane and the iron work connected
with it, drawn from a scale of one fourth of an inch to a foot, figured
in feet and i«ches ; and B, an example of the honeysuckles which
are to decorate the upper extremity of the cornice to the portico,
figured in minutes.
On Plate LIV. is a side elevation, and at A an example of one
of the second story windows, drawn fi-om a scale of one fourth of
an inch to a foot.
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PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 103
On Plate LVII. at fig. 4, is exhibited an example which shows
the construction of the timber work of the roof of this church, and
a plan and elevation of the frame of the cupola. The details which
are represented here show the best method of framing the various
joints in the roof. They are drawn from a scale of one fourth of
an inch to a foot, and figured in feet and inches ; which will render
them sufficiently plain.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
The principles of this science should be familiar to every prac-
tical carpenter. Carpenters who do not possess a thorough theo-
retical knowledge of their art, are apt either to load their work
with timbers unnecessarily large and expensive, or on the other
hand to provide- timbers too small and weak to resist, for a sufficient
length of time, the strain imposed upon them. A knowledge of
the stiff'ness of timber and other materials employed in Carpentry,
theoretically as well as practically, will be of the highest utility.
This information is furnished by the result of various experiments,
made for the purpose of ascertaining the different strains which
different sizes of those materials can bear, by several , scientific
gentlemen of Europe. Of course these experiments were made on
European timber. We therefore must make proper allowances
for the difference of timber. Different individuals have arrived at
104 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
different results in their experiments. We cannot, therefore, put
implicit confidence in any of them ; but taking them collectively, and
making proper allowances for difference in timber, we may assist ,
our judgment and obtain correct views on the subject.
The principal strains to which timbers and other materials are
exposed, are the following :
First, that strain by which a beam is drawn in the direction of
its length. The strength by which the beam resists this strain, is
called its cohesion. The experiment by which the cohesive power
of a beam or stick of known dimensions is ascertained, is easily
performed in the following manner. The stick is suspended verti-
cally by one extremity, and to the lower extremity are attached
weights, which being increased until the stick breaks, thus deter-
mine its cohesive power. To this strain, king posts, tie beams,
&c. are liable.
The second strain is when the load tends to compress the beam
in the direction of its length. To this strain, truss beams, pillars,
struts, &c. are exposed.
The third strain is when the load tends to break the beam across.
This is called a cross or transverse strain. To this strain all kinds
of bearing timbers are liable.
The following list, which gives the cohesive strength of several
beams and bars an inch square, is taken from one made by Mr.
Emerson. The rod of cast iron is taken from the experiments of
Rennie. The amount placed opposite each kind expresses its co-
hesive strength, or the weight which will be required to break it
when drawn in the direction of its length.
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PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
105
Iron Rod an inch square
will bear
76,400 pounds
Cast Iron
• •
. 18,656
Brass " "
• •
35,600
Hempen Rope "
• •
. 19,600
Ivory
"
15,700
Oak, Box and Plumtree
"
. 7,850
Elm, Ash and Beech
• •
6,070
Wahuit and Plum
• •
. 5,360
Red Fir, Hollej and Crab "
6,000
Cherrj and Hazel
• •
. 4,760
Alder, Asp, Birch and Willow
4,290
Lead
• • •
430
It is also given as a practical rule by Mr. Emerson, that a
cylinder whose diameter is six inches, will carry, when loaded to
one fourth of its absolute strength, as follows. Iron, 135 cwt. ;
Good Rope, 22 cwt. ; Oak, 14 cwt. ; Fir, 9 cwt.
By these experiments we see what an immense load a rod of one
inch square is capable of suspending. And we likewise see that
this strain is not likely to be overrated in practice.
Suppose it required to know the weight that an oak joist of three
by four inches will sustain. Multiply the depth by the breadth of
the joist in inches ; and that product, which is twelve, by the number
of pounds set against oak in the table, 7850. The product, 94,200
pounds, is the answer.
We now come to the second strain, that of compression in the
direction of its length. But few experiments on this strain have
been made, and the results of those few do not agree. It is main-
tained by some writers that the resistance to compression is about
equal to that of extension ; but the experiments of Du Hamel on
cross strain, seem to prove that the resistance to compression is not
27
106
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
more than two thirds of that to extension. It is however fortunate
for the practical workman that this strain is not often overrated ;
for it rarely happens in practice that a body employed to sustain
a heavy load is found insufficient for that purpose.
According to Mr. Rondelet's experiments on cubic inches of
oak, it required from 5000 to 6000 pounds to crush a piece of that
size ; and under this pressure its length was reduced more than
one third.
Mr. Ronnie's experiments produced results considerably lower.
A cubic inch of elm was crushed by 1284 pounds ; American pine
by 1606 pounds ; and English oak by 3860 pounds.
We now come to the cross strain, to which all bearing beams,
joists, &c. are liable. The resistance to this strain is much less
than that of either of the others.
A Table of the Cross or Transverse Strain of different kinds of Wood, each
Piece being one foot long, one inch broad, and one inch deep.
Oak 660 pounds.
v^an. • . • . .
Ash ....
. 635
Beech ....
677
Elm ....
. 540
Walnut, green
487
Spruce, American .
. 570
Hard Pine, do. .
658
Birch ....
. 517
Poplar, Lombard .
327
Chestnut
. 450
The abov€ table is selected from Tredgold's Carpentry. It ex-
presses the breaking weight of each piece. It will not, therefore,
b^ proper to permanently load either of the pieces with more than
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 107
one half of the breaking weight. The effect of this strain produces,
on the upper part of the beam, a compression in the direction of its
length ; and on the under part, an extension in the direction of its ■
length. To illustrate this subject more fully, I will here introduce
some of Du Hamel's ex]>eriments on the stiflhess of beams, the
results of which ought to be well understood.
Du Hamel took six bars of willow, three feet long and one and
one half , inch square. After suitable experiments, he found that
they were broken by 525 pounds on an average. Six bars were
next cut through with a saw one third of the depth from the upper
surface, and each cut was filled with a wedge of dry oak, inserted
with a little force. These were broken by 551 pounds on an
average. Six other bars were broken through by 542 pounds on
an average, after being cut half through and filled up in a similar
manner. Six other bars were cut three fourths through, and broken
by the pressure of 530 pounds on an average. A baton was then
cut three fourths through, and loaded until nearly broken. It was
then unloaded, and a thicker wedge was introduced tightly into the
cut, so as to straighten the bar by filling up the space left by the
compression of the wood. In this state the bar was broken by 577
pounds.
From these experiments we perceive that more than two thirds
of the thickness of a beam contributes nothing to its strength. And
here we also see, that the compressibility of this kind of strain
appears much greater than its dilatability, which circumstance
greatly increases its power of withstanding a transverse strain.
We see likewise that gains may be cut from the upper surface of
a beam downwards, to one third or one half of the depth, and joists
inserted tightly therein, without reducing the strength of the beam.
Observe, however, that the size of the joists is not reduced by
108 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
shrinkage. It is worthy of remark, that in all the experiments made
for ascertaining the resistance to pressure, the strength of the beam
is found to be as the breadth and square of the depth directly, and
inversely as the length. The strength of a beam therefore depends
chiefly on its depth, or rather on that dimension which is in the
direction of the strain. If a beam two inches deep and one broad
support a given weight, another beam of the same depth and double
the breadth will support double the weight. But if a beam two
inches deep and one inch broad support a given weight, another
of four inches deep and one inch broad will support four times the
weight. Hence, beams of equal breadths are to each other as the
square of their depths. Again, if a beam of a given cross section
and one foot long support a known weight, another beam of the
same cross section but two feet long will support only half the
known weight.
BufFon's experiments, which were made on large scantlings, and
were therefore free from those irregularities unavoidable on small
specimens, would seem to show that the strength diminishes in a
ratio greater than the inverse proportion of the length. Both reason
and experience seem to confirm the truth of these experiments.
A simple arithmetical rule, derived from these experiments, is
therefore given, by which the breaking weight of any scantling,
the breadth, depth and length being given, may be known. Divide
the breaking weight by the length in feet ; subtract 10 from the
quotient ; multiply the remainder by the breadth, and that product
by the square of the depth, both expressed in inches. The result
is the greatest load in pounds.
For example. Required the resistance of a spruce joist 17 feet
long, 12 inches in depth, and 2 inches in breadth. The breaking
weight placed against spruce in the above list is 570. Divide 570
CASi.IPlSM'H'IE'Fa
ri. s?
Ko- J.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 109
by 17, the length in feet, and you have 33 for the quotient nearly.
Subtract 10 from 33, and the remainder is 23. This remainder
being multiplied by 2, the breadth in inches, the product is 46.
Multiply this product by 144, the square of the depth in inches
(the square of any number being obtained by multiplying it by it-
self), and you have 6624 for the answer. I have left out the frac-
tions in the above operation, knowing that any deviation which
makes the resuU smaller, is on the safe side. Ans. 6624.
Required the resistance of a hard pine beam, 20 feet long, 12
inches in depth, and 10 inches in breadth. Ans. 31,680.
We must recollect that all the experiments, from which the above
results are obtained, were made on wood of the most perfect kind,
free from knots, shakes, spots, or rot, and not cross-grained, &c.
Every practical workman knows that in roofs, floors, or any other
piece of framing of any considerable magnitude, such perfection in
timber cannot be expected. It will be wise in him, therefore, to
make all due allowance for imperfections in timber.
PLATE LVII.
Fig. 1 exhibits an example of a truss simply constructed for a
roof of 30 feet span. I shall describe the different strains to which
this truss is liable, and the best means of resisting them.
If a load be laid on the rafters of this truss, it is evident that the
downward pressure will cause the heads of the rafters to press hard
against the king post, and the lower ends to press equally hard
against the abutment at each end of the tie beam. The rafters are
thus strained by a compression in the direction of their length ; and
if no other strain were to be resisted, a stick of timber of small
dimensions would be sufficient. But it is evident that a cross strain
28
110 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
is also to be provided for. The latter strain must be resisted by
struts, and by making the rafter of a size equal to the resistance of
that strain. The pressure of the rafters against the abutment at
each end of the tie beam, causes that beam to be strained by an ex-
tension in the direction of its length ; and moreover the load laid
upon this beam, together with the ceiling which is suspended from
the under surface, produces a cross strain, which must be resisted
by suspending this beam by the king post, and by making it, as in
the case of the rafters, of sul^icient size to resist the pressure.
The strain on the king post is an extension in the direction of its
length. A small piece of timber is therefore adequate to resist that
strain ; for we have seen that an oak joist of three by four inches is
capable of suspending 94,200 pounds. The pressure of the rafters
against the head of this post being very great, they will be apt to
indent themselves into the head of the post, and cause a small set-
tlement of the roof, unless the post be made of hard wood. But let
it be observed, moreover, that this part of the king post should be
made as small as the strain on the post will admit ; otherwise the
shrinkage of the post will produce the same effect as the indentation
of the rafters. The strain on the strut is wholly that of a compres-
sion in the direction of its length, which a small piece of timber
will be able to resist.
Having now given the theory of the principal strains of this
section, we will give some practical advice in relation to the exe-
cution of the work. All bearing joints ought to be made at right
angles with the strain. A exhibits the best method of constructing
the joints at the head of the rafter and at the ends of the straining
beam when they butt against the queen post. The dotted lines show
the length of the tenon, which need not be more than one and one
half of an inch in length, but must be made to fit the mortice in the
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. HI
most perfect manner. The bearing surfaces of the post, rafter, and
straining beam, should be in one even plane, that the joint may be
perfect throughout its whole surface. The ends of the tenons should
likewise fit exactly at the bottom of the mortice. Pins are not
required here. These observations are intended to apply to all
other joints in framing.
B exhibits the method of connecting the foot of the king post to
the tie beam. The tenon in this case is only two inches long.
The bolt shown here is intended for a large roof, where two nuts
are required, and in this case need not be more than one and one
eighth of an inch in diameter. It will require a thick, strong head
and nuts, three-fourths or seven-eighths of an inch in thickness ; and
care should be taken that the thread be of a suitable size and well
cut, and that the iron of which they are made is of the best quality.
We shall not doubt that the size here mentioned is sufficient, when
we consider that a bar of iron one inch square is capable of
suspending 76,400 pounds.
C exhibits a method of connecting the head of the queen post to
the principal rafter. The tenon in this case is not required to be
more than one and one half of an inch, and this length is quite suffi-
cient for the tenon at the head and foot of the struts. E exhibits
an elevation of a part of the tie beam, the principal and small rafter,
a section of the plates and purloins and method of connecting them
together ; also the best way of securing the foot of a principal rafter
by an iron strap. F shows the upper surface of a part of the tie
beam. Two inches in the centre of the beam is left uncut, whilst
the wood on each side of it is cut away to form the abutments for
the foot of the rafter.
D shows a piece of the principal and small rafters, and a section
of the purloin. That part of the purloin expressed by dotted lines
112 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
against the principal rafter, is notched on to the rafter, the purloin
being nine inches deep. Two and a half inches are cut out of the
under surface of the purloin, one half inch out of the principal
rafter, and three inches out of the small rafter. The distance be-
tween the two rafters is three inches.
Fig. 2 exhibits an example of a truss for a roof of forty-four feet
span. It is constructed with iron queen posts as a substitute for
wood, and thus avoids the difficulty of shrinkage and indentation of
the heads of the queen post. A bar of iron one inch square is
sufficiently large to resist any strain which may happen to these
posts.
I and J exhibit a method of connecting the heads of the principal
rafters wilh the straining beam.
Fig. 3 exhibits an example of a truss for a roof of eighty feet
span. The depth of the timbers is figured on the plan, and they
may all be nine inches in breadth, except the small rafters, which
may be three inches.
PLATE LVIII.
A exhibits an example of a truss partition suitably constructed
for a situation where the timbers, either below or above it, require
support. The truss being placed over the doors, it does not there-
fore interfere as to these doors being placed in any situation
desired, a a show two iron rods, to which the timbers below may
be suspended. Three inches is quite sufficient for the thickness
of this partition, unless the story be made more than ten feet in
height.
B shows a method of framing the principal rafters through the
king post, their ends bearing against each other. C exhibits a sidB
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PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 113
view of the king post, showing the mortice made through it, which
is six inches in breadth, and leaves two inches of wood on each
side of it. If this example be faithfully framed, it leaves no chance
for shrinkage or indentation.
D shows an example for a wrought iron truss of twenty-six feet
span. This truss is capable of being extended to a greater length
if desired. , a, b, c, are pieces of wood used for the purpose of pre-
ventinij the truss from tumbling.
F and G exhibit different methods of scarfing timbers, figured in
feet and inches, and plain to inspection. The ends of the iron
straps on F are let into the beam.
E shows the best method of constructing a floor for a dwelling-
house. The beam lying under the partition which separates the
rooms from the entry, is six by twelve inches ; the one in the centre
between the rooms and under the sliding doors, ten by twelve ;
the trimmer joists four by twelve, and the common joists two by
twelve.
a, a, show two rows of stiffeners, which may be made with pieces
of inch boards that are of little or no value. They should be cut
in, so as to make a perfect joint against the sides of the joists, and
fitted in with a little force. They should never be omitted in a floor
of this sort, where the joists have more than ten feet bearing ; for
they stiffen and strengthen the floor exceedingly. H shows the
method of framing the trimmer joists ; J, the joists into the beam ;
and K, the end of a joist cut so as to rest on a brick wall.
If a floor of a dwelling-house be loaded with people, to which it
is always liable, the load is then equal to one hundred and twenty
pounds on each square foot ; we therefore see that the floor of a
room of twenty by seventeen feet, must be capable of resisting a
pressure of 40,800 pounds.
29
114 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
The bearing weight of one of these joists (supposing them to be
of spruce), is obtained as follows. The breaking weight of spruce
is 570. Divide 570 by the'length of the joist, which is 17 feet, and
you obtain 33 feet nearly (for I leave out the decimals). Deduct
10 from 33, and the remainder is 23. Multiply 23 by 2, the breadth
of the joist, and you obtain 46. Multiply 46 by the square of the
depth of the joist, which is 144, and you obtain 6624, which is the
breaking weight ; and the breaking weight of the twenty joists col-
lectively which are in the floor (I call each of the trimmers equal
to two common joists), is 132,480 pounds. And they contain 680
feet of timber, board measure.
We will now see, in the same manner, what the resistance to
pressure is, of a floor framed in the common way, with a beam lying
longitudinally through the centre of the room, twelve inches square,
and filled up on each side with joists four by four inches. The
breaking weight of the beam, if of spruce, is 31,104 pounds. In
this calculation I do not allow any diminution in the strength of the
beam on account of the gains cut into it, because if the joists are
tightly pressed into the gains and prevented from shrinking, the
beam will not be weakened. 31,104 pounds is one half of the
ultimate strength of the floor. Double this sum, and you have
62,208 for the ultimate strength of the whole floor. It requires 602
feet of timber, board measure, to complete this floor. By this cal-
culation we see that with the same quantity of timber in the wide
joist floor, we have more than double the strength that is obtained
by a beam and joist floor.
If a church be made of wood, and without a gallery, it is common
to frame the sides with a girt, placed about midway between the
plate and the sill. The posts and girts in this case cannot be less
than ten inches, and the studs four by four inches. Let us suppose
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 115
a building, fifty feet long and twenty-five high, to be framed in this
way. The mortice made in the middle of the post cannot be less
than two inches ; and the pin-holes, which pass through the tenon
of each girt, than two inches more. The tenon and pin-holes reduce
the solid part of the post to eight inches, and even less : for, in
taking the square of the depth, it must be taken in two parts ; first,
from the face of the post to the mortice, two inches, the square of
which is four ; and the remaining part of the post beyond the
mortice is six inches, the square of which is thirty-six, which
with the four added makes forty ; whereas the square of eight is
sixty-four.
If these posts be of spruce, the bearing weight of each will be
3840, and collectively 15,360. Double this sum, and we have
30,720 pounds ; which is the ultimate resistance to any strain to
which the whole side of the house is liable. The greatest force
produced by the wind on a vertical wall is equal to forty pounds on
a square foot. It will therefore be unsafe not to afford a resistance
fully adequate to overcome that strain. The posts, girts and studs,
will contain 2083 feet, board measure. We will now suppose this
facade to be framed with spruce studs, twenty-five feet long, two
inches thick, and eight inches deep. The breaking weight of one
is 1944 ; and of thirty-seven, the number required to complete the
side, 71,928 pounds, which is the ultimate strength of the whole
side ; and they contain altogether 1354 feet, board measure.
I leave this subject without comment, trusting that the practical
workman will see the immense advantage gained by the deep joist
and deep stud framing, and decide in their favor.
116 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
PLATE LIX.
On this plate is exhibited an example of the Corinthian order,
as taken by Stewart & Revett from the Choragic Monument of
Lysicrates at Athens. It is figured in feet, inches, and decimal
parts of an inch. Had I intended to publish this example at the
commencement of the work, I should have given it a place by the
side of the Corinthian order ; but as that was not the case, being
aware of the high estimation in which this composition is held by
the lovers of the art, I have supposed it better to give it a place at
the end of the book than not at all.
PLATE LX.
On this plate is exhibited a series of designs for Fences, Win-
dow Guards, &c. In this construction a view was had to their
being made of cast iron. They are drawn from a scale of one
half an inch to a foot. H and I exhibit two different examples for
frets. H is divided into seventeen, and I into nine parts. I have
given here the manner of forming the angle of each design.
THE END.
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